PRIMARY  MANUAL  TRAINING, 


METHODS  IN  FORM  STUDY,  CLAY,  PAPER  AND 
COLOR  WORK. 


BY  CAROLINE  F.  CUTLER,  . 

Lucretia  Crocker  School,  Boston. 
Special  Instructor  in    Manual  Training  to  the  Primary   Teachers  of  Boston. 


BOSTON    AND    CHICAGO: 
EDUCATIONAL    PUBLISHING    COMPANY. 

1891. 


COPTRIGHT 
BY   EDUCATIONAL  PULISHING   COMPANY 

1891. 


PUBLISHER?'   NOTE. 


The  author  presents,  in  plain  language,  practical  methods 
of  teaching  Manual  Training  in  primary  schools. 

In  fact,  this  book  is  but  a  transcript  of  the  regular  work 
done  by  the  author  in  her  own  school,  and  no  plans  have  been 
suggested  that  cannot  be  readily  accomplished  by  the  average 
pupil. 

After  the  school  committee  of  Boston  had  added  to  the 
course  of  study  for  the  primary  schools,  a  course  in  Manual 
Training,  the  author  was  summoned  by  the  committee  to  give 
instruction  to  the  primary  teachers  in  the  methods  to  be 
employed  in  teaching  Modeling  in  Clay,  Paper-cutting  and 
Folding,  Stick-laying,  etc. 

The  line  of  instruction  was  in  strict  harmony  with  the 
course  of  study,  and  this  book,  which  is  the  epitome  of  her 
instruction,  is  issued  in  response  to  the  demands  of  many 
teachers. 

ni 


2066039 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

General  Suggestions, V. 

Plan  of  Development  of  each  Type-Solid,         .........  VII. 

The  Sphere, 5 

The  Cube,             13 

Paper-Folding,  Series  I, 22 

Paper-Folding  —  Forms  of  Life, 32 

Paper-Folding  —  Cutting  and  Pasting, 35 

The  Cylinder, 38 

Review  of  First  Three  Solids, 45 

Color, 46 

Paper-Cutting  — Color  Work, •   .  53 

The  Hemisphere 57 

The  Square  Prism, 62 

The  Right-Angled  Triangular  Prism, 66 

Equilateral  Triangular  Prism, 69 

Paper-Folding,  Series  II, 75 

Dimensions, 89 

The  Ellipsoid,              93 

The  Oblate  Spheroid, 99 

The  Ovoid, 100 

The  Cone,             107 

The  Square  Pyramid, 113 

The  Equilateral  Triangular  Pyramfd, 120 

Suggestions  for  connecting  Manual  Training  with  other  Studies,  .         .         .  122 

Constructive  Work  in  Card-board 124 

Suggestions  for  Stick-Laying, .128 

IV 


GENERAL   £uqqE£TiON3. 


CLAY. —  Modeling  clay  may  be  obtained  at  the  Pottery  Works, 
or  of  a  plaster  image-maker,  at  a  cost  not  exceeding  three  cents  per 
pound. 

Buy  the  moist  clay,  and  by  keeping  it  in  a  covered  earthen  jar, 
with  a  damp  cloth  over  the  day,  it  will  be  ready  for  instant  use. 
After  each  lesson,  preserve  the  best  specimens,  and  always  moisten 
the  clay  before  returning  it  to  the  jar. 

Clay  is  generally  so  dry  and  hard,  after  the  children  have 
used  it,  that  "  simple  moistening  "  may  not  be  enough.  It  is  best 
then  to  put  it  in  a  dish,  and  cover  it  with  water. 

After  it  has  thus  stood  a  few  hours,  or  until  thoroughly  softened, 
pour  off  the  water,  and  wrap  the  clay  in  a  large  cloth.  Place  the 
clay  thus  wrapped  upon  a  plane  surface,  as  a  slate  or  a  board,  and 
knead,  turning  it  in  different  directions,  till  the  water  is  thoroughly 
pressed  out  and  a  compact  mass  formed,  when  it  will  be  in  condi- 
tion to  be  returned  to  the  jar  for  future  use. 

Clay  may  be  cut  by  means  of  a  knife,  wire  or  strong  thread. 
Thread  is  better  for  children's  use  than  wire,  as  the  latter  is  apt  to 


VI  GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

twist  and  become  uneven.  Thin,  stiff'  cards  can  be  used  to  cut  small 
pieces  of  clay. 

Clay  may  be  modeled  by  rolling  between  the  palms  of  the 
hands  or  upon  a  plane  surface,  and  by  striking  it  gently  upon  a  plane 
surface. 

A  sharp-pointed  stick  --  (A  wooden  tooth-pick,  for  instance), 
may  be  used  to  draw  lines  upon  the  clay.  A  stick  with  a  rough  end 
may  be  used  to  puncture  the  clay,  to  give  a  rough  surface  to  the 
background. 

PAPER. —  Manilla  paper  in  sheets,  measuring  24x30  and  weigh- 
ing thirty  pounds  to  the  ream,  is  "about  right  "  for  paper-folding, 
as  it  will  be  found  thin  enough  to  fold  readily. 

This  paper  may  be  bought  by  the  single  pound,  and  the  dealer 
will  cut  it  into  squares  of  any  desired  size.  Four-inch  squares  are  com- 
monly used,  though  large  squares  will  be  needed  for  certain  forms. 

Thin  card-board  or  development  paper,  should  be  used  in  the 
representation  of  solids  in  the  higher  classes. 

Development  paper  24  X  36,  \veighs  about  eighty  pounds  to  the 
ream. 

Manilla  paper  may  be  used  for  drawing  in  primary  schools,  but 
it  should  be  of  heavier  quality  than  the  folding  paper.  Paper  should 
be  furnished  liberally  to  the  children  that  they  may  become  accus- 
tomed to  using  it  freely  in  preference  to  the  slate. 

Colored  paper  cut  in  four-inch  squares,  may  be  purchased  by 
the  package,  or,  it  may  be  bought  by  the  sheet,  and  cut  to  order. 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS.  VH 

TABLETS.  —  Tablets  of  various  sizes  and  shapes  for  use  in  form 
study,  may  be  purchased,  but  if  they  are  too  expensive,  satisfactory 
tablets  can  be  made  of  card  or  stiff  paper.  The  children  can  make 
them  by  tracing  around  the  edge  of  a  pattern  and  then  cutting  out 
the  forms. 

STICK-LAYIXG. —  Colored  sticks  are  sold  for  this  purpose,  but 
splints,  or  even  wooden  tooth  picks  may  be  used. 

SCISSORS. —  Short  blunt-pointed  scissors  are  the  best  for  young 
children  to  use. 

PASTING. —  Each  child  should  have  a  little  plate  containing  a 
small  quantity  of  paste.  A  few  children  may  be  taught  to  fill  the 
plates,  and  distribute  them  quickly.  A  wooden  tooth-pick  is  better 
than  a  brush  for  applying  paste. 

CARD-PRICKIXG. —  Pricking  cushions  and  pins  are  prepared  for 
Kindergarten  use.  Draw  any  desired  pattern  upon  paper  and  place 
the  paper  over  the  card  to  be  sewed.  At  suitable  intervals  along 
the  outline  of  the  pattern  prick  holes  through  paper  and  card.  Ke- 
move  the  paper  and  the  card  is  ready  for  sewing.  If  the  cushions 
and  pins  cannot  readily  be  obtained,  place  the  card  upon  a  piece  -of 
thick  flannel  and  prick  with  a  large  shawl  pin. 

Each  subject  of  form  study  may  be  systematically  developed 
by  following  the  plan  here  suggested. 


1.  The  study  of  the  facts  of  the  type-solid. 

2.  Modeling  type-solid  of  clay. 

3.  Modeling  objects  based  upon  the  type-solid. 


vm  GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

4.  Half  solid,  and  objects  based  upon  it. 

5.  Study  of  views  of  type-solid,  with  the  tablet  exercises. 

6.  Tracing  on  clay  tablets. 

7.  Sewing-cards. 

8.  Plane  of  the  type-solid. 

9.  Paper-folding  and  cutting. 

10.  Stick-laying  (where  there  are  straight  edges.) 

11.  Arm  and  pencil-movements. 

12.  Drawing  of   objects  based  upon  the  type-solid. 


PLAN     FOR  -DEVELOPINQ    THE     £PHERE. 

1.  Study  the  facts  of  the  type-solid.     .          .          .     See  page    5 

2.  Model  a  sphere  of  clay.            .          .          .          .  "  6 

3.  Model  clay  objects  based  upon  the  sphere.         .  "  6 

4.  Cut  the  clay  sphere.     Hemispheres.          .          .  "  7 

5.  Place  tablets "  8 

6.  Sewing-cards.          .          .          .          .         .          .  "  9,  10 

7.  Arm  and  pencil-movements.     .          .          .          .  "  11,  12 

8.  Draw  free-hand  circle.     .          .          .          .          .  "  12 

9.  Draw  outline  of  objects  based  upon  the  sphere.  "  12 


GENERAL   SUGGESTIONS.  IX 

PLAN     FOR     DEVELOPING,     THE     CUBE. 

1.  Compare  with  the  sphere  and  study  the  facts  of 

type-solid.  ......     See  page  13 

2.  Model  cube  of  clay.         .          .          .          .          .  "  14 

3.  Model  objects  based  upon  the  cube.           .          .  "  14 

4.  Make  a  paper  cube.          .          .          .          .         .  "  14 

5.  Faces  of  cube  from  the  type-solid.             .  "  16 

6.  Tablet  exercises.     .          .          .          .          .          .  "  16 

7.  Plane  of  the  cube  and  objects  based  upon  it.     .  "  18 

8.  Edges  from  study  of  the  type-solid.          .          .  "  17 

9.  Corners  from  study  of  the  type-solid.       .          .  "  17 

10.  Exercises  with  sticks  and  peas.         .          .          .  "  18 

11.  Sewing-cards.          .          .                   .          .          .  "  18 

12.  Tablets  laid  in  borders  and  groups.           .          .  "  19 

13.  Stick-laying "19 

14.  Arm  and  pencil-movements.     .          .          .          .  "  20 

15.  Draw  the  square.     . ' '       .  '                .         .          .  "  20-21 

16.  Paper-foldings    with    sewing,  stick-laying  and 

drawing.     Firjt  series,  (omitting  triangles.)  "  22 

17.  Draw  outlines  of  one  view  of  cubical  objects.  "  36 

18.  Paper-folding  and  cutting,  —  basket,  sled,  etc.  "  32 

19.  Paper-folding  and  pasting.      (Designs.)    .          .  "  35 

20.  Clay  plaques "37 


THE  SPHERE. 

Each  child  should  hold  in  his  hand  a  small  sphere  —  while  the 
teacher  holds  a  large  one  before  the  class. 

The  teacher  should  lead  the  children  to  perceive  and  state  that 
the  "ball  "  is  round  and  smooth,  and  that  it  will  stand  and  roll. 

Give  the  name  —  sphere.  (Care  should  be  taken  that  the 
children  do  not  call  this  word,  spear). 

Talk  about  the  outside  of  the  sphere,  and  of  other  objects,  and 
give  the  name  —  surface. 

Let  the  children  move  their  lingers  over  the  surface  of  the 
sphere,  and  roll  the  sphere  in  their  hands,  and  so  call  forth  the 
expression  —  round  surface. 


6  THE  SPHERE. 

The  children  may  next  model  a  sphere  of  clay.  Give  to  each 
child  a  piece  of  clay,  a  little  larger  than  a  cubic  inch,  and  tell  him 
to  place  it  in  the  palm  of  his  left  hand.  Then  place  the  palm  of 
his  right  hand  upon  the  clay,  and  roll  it  and  mould  it,  till  a  sphere 
has  been  formed.  The  teacher  should  model  one  at  the  same  time, 
that  the  children  may  observe  the  process. 

Next,  place  before  the  class  objects  based  upon  the  sphere — as, 
an  apple,  a  round  melon,  and  a  round  basket.  (Figs.  1  —  3). 

Let  the  children  model  a  sphere,  and  then  change  the  form 
of  its  surface  to  resemble  the  object  selected.  This  attempt  to 
imitate  in  clay,  trains  both  the  eye  and  hand,  and  will  lead  the 


FIG.  1. 


FIG.  2. 


FIG.  3. 


children  to  notice  the  spherical  form  of  other  objects.  To  make 
an  apple,  the  sphere  must  be  indented  by  pressing  slightly  with 
the  thumb  upon  the  surface,  and  then  inserting  a  stem,  which  may 
be  made  of  clay,  though  a  real  apple  stem  would  prove  more 


THE  SPHERE.  7 

effective.       On  the  side   opposite  the  stem   make    a  few  scratches 
on  the  clay,  to  imitate  the  blossom.      (Fig.  1). 

A  melon  is  made  by  flattening  the  upper  and  lower  surface  a 
trifle,  and  marking  the  stripes.  For  this,  use  a  sharp  slate  pencil,  a 
wooden  tooth-pick,  or  a  thin  strip  of  wood  shaped  like  a  knife-blade. 
The  basket  should  have  a  line  marked  around  it,  to  represent  the 
edge  of  the  cover.  Roll  a  small  piece  of  clay  between  the  hands, 
until  a  long  thin  strip  is  made,  which  may  be  fastened  to  the  basket 
for  a  handle. 


FIG.  4. 


A  sphere  may  be  cut  in  halves,  and  the  hemisphere  described 
—  but  it  is  best  to  make  the  study  of  the  hemisphere  a  separate 
subject.  (Fig.  4). 

TABLETS. — Work  with  tablets  should  follow  clay  modelling.  Place 
square  and  circular  tablets,  (thin  card-board)  of  the  same  diameter 
as  the  type-solids,  upon  a  table  where  the  children  can  see  them. 

Tell  the  children  to  hold  the  sphere  in  front  of  the  eye,  and 
then  ask  a  child  to  select  a  tablet  that  looks  like  a  picture  of  the 
sphere. 


THE  SPHERE. 


Give  the  name  of  the  tablet  —  circle. 

Let  the  children  place  the  tablets  upon  the  desk  in  a  position  to 
imitate  spherical  objects  —  as  a  string  of  beads,  or  a  bunch  of 
grapes.  (Fig*.  5  and  f>). 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


With  colored  circles  of  various  sizes  very  pleasing  pictures  of 
objects  can  be  easily  made,  and  the  children  should  be  taught  to 
paste  the  tablets  upon  gray,  or  other  neutral-tinted  paper. 


THE  SPHERE. 


The  spherical  outline  may  also  be  taught  by  sewing  cards 
having  circles  or  circular  objects  pricked  upon  them.  Let  the 
children  sew  with  appropriate  colored  worsteds  or  threads. 


\ 


\ 


SAMPLE  OF  SEWING  CARD. 


THE  SPHERE. 


/i  \\ 

//i    \\ 

/  11   \\ 


u 


\ 

> 


x 


/    x" 

-x\-x-^ 
\ 


N 


SUBJECTS  FOR  SEWING  CARDS. 


ARM  AND  PENCIL-MOVEMENT. 


ARM  AND  PENCIL-MOVEMENT. 

The  children  should  next  be  taught  arm  and  pencil-move- 
ments, preparatory  to  drawing  the  circle. 

Let  the  children  extend  the  right  arm  horizontally,  and  describe 
the  form  of  the  circle  in  the  air,  by  moving  the  hand  toward  the  left 
side,  then  up  —  then  down  toward  the  right  side,  and  back  to  point 
of  starting. 


FIG.  7. 


Let  them  practice  the  same  movement  at  the  black-board,  using 
the  chalk,  until  a  smooth,  free  circular  movement  of  the  arm  is 
obtained,  without  regard  to  the  size  of  the  circle,  except  that  it  be  a 
large  one.  The  chalk  should  be  held  with  the  pointed  end  at  an 


12 


ARM  AND  PENCIL-MOVEMENT. 


angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees  to  the  surface  of  the  board,  always 
pointing  toward  the  left,  and  the  circle  drawn  as  indicated  by  figure. 


FIG.  9. 


Let  the  children  practise  upon  slate  or  paper,  (paper  is  preferable) 
holding  the  pencil  in  the  same  manner  as  the  chalk. 

Children  should  draw  simple  spherical  forms  from  the  object. 
Their  attention  should  be  called  to  the  prominent  features  of  the 
object  selected.  If  it  is  not  perfectly  round,  ask  them  where  the 
surface  is  flat  or  elevated  ;  whether  it  is  longer  ' '  one  way  than  the 
other,"  also  what  additions  are  made  to  the  spherical  form  to  complete 
the  object?  Train  the  child  to  see  the  form  —  and  afterward,  orally, 
and  by  drawing,  to  give  descriptive  explanations. 

Suppose  the  object  selected  to  be  drawn  was  'A  spherical  tea-kettle. 
The  children  will  find,  by  measuring,  that  the  body  of  the  kettle 
as  longer  horizontally  than  vertically.  That  the  distance  from  the 
top  of  the  kettle  to  the  highest  curve  of  the  handle  is  equal  to  one- 
half  the  diameter  of  the  circle.  They  will  also  discover  that  the 
bottom  of  the  kettle  and  the  edge  of  the  cover  look  straight,  and  that 
the  spout  is  placed  nearer  the  lower,  than  the  upper  part  of  the  right 
side  of  the  kettle.  (Fig.  9). 


THE  CUBE. 


13 


THE   CUBE. 

In  the  study  of  the  cube,  use  type  solids  as  with  the  sphere. 

Compare  the  cube  with  the  sphere. 

Observe  that  the  cube  is  not  round,  that  it  has  edges  and  cor- 
ners, that  it  will  stand  and  slide,  but  will  not  roll. 

Observe  also  that  its  surface  is  flat  or  plane.  There  are  six 
parts  to  the  outside  of  the  "  block,"  all  parts  of  the  same  size  and 
shape. 

Give  the  name  —  cube. 

When  the  children  have  become  familiar  with  the  facts  of  the  type 
solid,  they  should  be  taught  to  mould  the  cube  of  clay. 


14 


THE  CUBE. 


Give  a  piece  of  clay  to  each  child,  and  have  them  all  model  a 
sphere.  Then  holding  the  sphere  in  the  right  hand,  between  the 
thumb  and  fingers,  tap  it  gently  upon  the  slate  three  times  (the 
teacher  counting  aloud  for  this  movement,  that  the  action  mav  be 

o  * 

uniform). 

Turn  the  clay  and  tap  three  times  upon  the  opposite  side,  con- 
tinuing to  turn  the  clay  until  the  six  sides  have  been  flattened,  and 
the  clay  has  assumed  the  form  of  the  cube. 

Direct  the  children  to  be  careful  to  make  all  the  faces  of  the 
same  size,  with  sharp  edges  and  square  corners. 


FIG.  l. 

Objects  like  the  cube,  SLS  a  square  basket,  a  safe,  dice,  lump  of 
sugar,  may  also  be  modeled  in  clay.  (Figs.  1  and  2). 

The  cube  should  also  be  formed  of  paper. 

Give  each  child  a  square  of  paper.  The  teacher  holds  a  larr/e 
square  before  the  class,  and  folds  and  dictates ;  while  the  children 
follow  her  directions. 

Fold  front  edge  to  meet  back  edge.  Open  paper.  Fold  front 
edge  to  meet  centre  fold.  Open  paper.  Fold  back  edge  to  meet 
centre  fold.  Open.  Fold  left  edge  to  meet  right  edge.  Open. 
Fold  left  edge  to  meet  centre  fold.  Open.  Fold  right  edge  to 
meet  centre.  Open.  Result, —  sixteen  small  squares. 


THE  CUBE. 


15 


Cut  off  one  entire  row  of  squares  from  the  lower  side  of  paper. 
From  the  larger  piece  cut  off  each  corner  square.  The  paper  now  is 
like  Fig.  1. 


FIG   1. 


FIG.  2. 


Now,  cut  off  one  of  the  two  upper  squares  and  also  the  one  opposite 
on  the  lower  row.  (Fig.  2). 

Fold  this  paper  till  the  edges  meet  in  the  form  of  a  cube  — 
join  the  edges  by  sewing  or  pasting. 

Many  objects,  based  upon  the  cube,  may  be  made  of  paper. 


By  joining  (as  for  the  cube)  all  the  faces,  except  one,  a  box 
is  formed.  The  face  left  open  serves  for  the  cover.  Instead  of 
sewing  the  edges,  tie  each  corner  with  colored  worsted.  (Fig.  3). 


16 


FACE  OF  THE  CUBE. 


FACE   OF  THE  CUBE. 

Let  the  children  find  and  count  the  different  parts  of  the  surface 
of  the  cube. 

There  are  six  parts  —  all  of  the  same  size. 

Each  part  is  called  a  face.  Find  the  front  face  —  top  face  — 
and  the  other  faces. 

Give  exercises  that  will  illustrate  the  terms  —  level  and  up- 
right. 

Let  the  children  find  surfaces,  upon  which  objects  will  rest 
evenly. 

Give  term  —  horizontal. 

Find  the  horizontal  faces  of  the  cube. 

Let  the  children  place  object  in  upright  position. 

Find  the  faces  of  cube  that  are  upright. 

Give  term  —  vertical. 

Find  a  tablet  like  one  face  of  the  cube. 

Give  name  —  square. 


Find  horizontal  and  vertical  faces. 

Interesting  and  valuable  exercises  with  tablets  may  be  given. 


FACE  OF  THE  CUBE.  17 

Place  six  tablets  to  form  a  cube,  like  the  paper  model   of  the 
cube. 


EDGES. —  Direct  the  children  to  find  the  places  on  the  cube, 
and  on  different  objects  about  the  room,  where  the  faces  meet. 

Give  term  —  edge. 

Find  horizontal  and  vertical  edges. 

Find  any  two  edges  of  the  cube  that  extend  in  the  same  direc- 
tion— for  example,  those  from  left  to  right,  also  those  from  front  to 
back,  and  again  those  from  top  to  bottom.  And  give  the  term  — 
parallel. 

CORNERS.  Have  the  children  find  the  points  where  the  edges 
meet,  and  give  the  name  —  corner. 

Have  them  find  also,  the  outside  corners  of  the  cube  —  and  of 
other  objects. 

Also  find  the  inside  corners  of  the  room,  and  of  boxes — find 
face  corners  of  the  cube,  of  the  floor  and  of  the  slates. 

A   skeleton  cube  can   also    be   formed   of  sticks  and  peas  by 


18 


FACE  OF  THE  CUBE. 


placing  the  sticks  to  represent  the  edges  of  the    cube,  and  joining 
the  corners  with  peas. 


Cut  a  plane  from  a  clay  cube  and  from  it  model  a  square  cracker, 
or  a  card  of  buttons. 


AFTERNOON  TEA. 


Square  objects  may  be  outlined  on  sewing  cards,  and  given  the 
children  to  sew. 


PACE  OP  THE  CUBE. 


19 


Make  borders  of  tablets  using  both  squares  and  circles  —  edge 


to  edge. 


Next,  place  them  with  their  edges  near,  but  not  touching. 


O 


Edges  overlapping. 


In  groups. 


Lay  sticks  for  edges  to  the  borders. 

Tablets  of  colored  paper  pasted  on  coarse  paper  make  pretty 
borders. 

STICK  LAYING. —  Lay  sticks  to  represent  the  edges  and  corners 
of  a  square. 


20  ARM  AND  PENCIL-MOVEMENT. 


ARM  AND  PENCIL-MOVEMENT. 

The  next  step  is  to  give  arm  and  pencil-movements  preparatory 
to  drawing  the  square.  Send  as  many  children  as  possible  to  the 
board — the  others  meanwhile  working  at  their  desks. 

Direct  the  children  to  turn  slightly  toward  the  left,  and  hold 
the  point  of  the  chalk  toward  the  left  also,  at  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees  to  the  surface  of  the  board — draw  downward  in  a  vertical 
line.  (Fig.  1). 


FIG.  l. 


Now,  direct  the  children  at  the  board  to  turn  slightly  toward  the 
right,  and  with  the  chalk  pointing  upward,  place  the  point  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  vertical  line,  and  draw  from  left  to  right,  a  line  as 
long  as  the  vertical  line.  (Fig.  2). 


ARM  AND  PENCIL-MOVEMENT. 


21 


FIG.  2. 


Turn  again  toward  the  left  —  and  draw  downward  from  the 
right  end  of  the  horizontal  line,  to  make  the  right  vertical  line. 
Resume  position  for  the  horizontal  line,  and  draw  the  lower  side  of 
the  square,  from  left  to  right.  (Fig.  3). 


FIG.  3. 


In   drawing  on  the  black-board  the  children   may  use  a  ruler 
to  measure  the  lines  but  must  not  draw  by  it. 


22  PAPER-FOLDING, 


PAPER-FOLDING. 

The  following  foldings  form  a  systematic  series,  but  some  of 
them,  for  example,  the  angles  and  triangles,  may  be  omitted  until 
after  the  study  of  the  solids  illustrating  those  forms. 

These  foldings  may  be  used  separately,  but  it  is  well  to  connect 
them  with  drawing  and  sewing  lessons.  Thus  after  folding  No.  1 , 
fold  another  just  like  it  and  let  the  child  trace  the  crease  with  a  lead 
pencil.  Next  with  a  ruler  measure  the  line  and  draw  one  the  same 
length  on  slate  or  paper,  testing  carefully  with  ruler.  In  this  way 
the  use  of  ruler  is  learned,  and  eye  and  hand  trained  to  accuracy. 
Then  draw  the  line  again  entirely  free-hand. 

These  four  steps  having  been  taken,  a  child  will  thoroughly  under- 
stand and  be  able  to  draw  a  horizontal  line. 

Proceed  the  same  with  No.  2,  and  all  the  figures,  taking  four 
steps  with  each  before  attempting  the  next  figure. 

These  same  figures  can  be  pricked  on  cards  and  sewed  with 
colored  thread  or  worsted,  giving  a  series  of  sewing  lessons. 

Sewing  on  canvas  or  scrim  will  do  as  well. 

If  the  papers  are  cut  through  the  creases  and  the  strips  pasted 
on  gray  or  neutral-tinted  coarse  paper,  another  development  of 
manual  training  will  result. 

Stick-laying  in  these  forms  should  precede  drawing. 

The  papers  used  for  these  foldings  are  four  inches  square. 

In  this  first  set  of  foldings  each  crease  should  be  made  sepa- 
rately that  all  may  be  accurate.  Never  allow  the  children  to  double 
the  paper  and  make  several  creases  at  once. 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


23 


NUMBER  OXE. — Fold  front  edge  of  square  to  meet  back  edge. 
Open  paper.  Result  —  a  horizontal  line. 

NUMBER  Two. — Fold  front  edge  of  square  to  meet  back  edge. 
Open  paper.  Fold  front  edge  to  meet  horizontal  line  in  centre. 
Fold  back  edge  to  meet  centre  line.  Open  square.  Result  —  three 
parallel  horizontal  lines. 


edge  to  meet 


right  edge. 


Open 


NUMBEB  THREE.  — Fold  left 
paper.     Result  —  vertical  line. 

NUMBER  FOUR. — Fold  left  edge  to  meet  right  edge.  Open 
paper.  Fold  left  edge  to  meet  centre  line.  Fold  right  edge  to  meet 
centre  line.  Result  —  three  parallel  vertical  lines. 


24 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


NUMBER  FIVE. —  Fold  front  edge  to  meet  back  edge.  Open 
paper.  Fold  left  edge  to  meet  right  edge.  Open  paper.  Result 
—  two  diameters  of  square. 

NUMBER  Six.  — Fold  lower  left  corner  of  square  to  meet  upper 
right  corner.  Open  paper.  Result  —  oblique  line  —  also  diagonal 
of  square. 


NUMBER  SEVEN.  — Fold  lower  left  corner  to  meet  upper  right 
corner.  Open  paper.  Fold  lower  right  corner  to  meet  upper  left 
corner.  Open  paper.  Result  —  two  diagonals  of  square. 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


25 


NUMBER  EIGHT. —  Fold  lower  left  corner  of  square  to  meet 
upper  right  corner.  Open  paper.  Fold  lower  left  corner  to  meet 
centre  of  oblique  line.  Fold  upper  right  corner  to  meet  centre  line. 
Open  paper.  Result  —  three  parallel  oblique  lines. 


NUMBER  NINE.  — Fold  diameters  of  square  (See  No.  5).  Result 


—  four  small  squares.     Cut  out  upper  right  square. 


Result  —  right 


angle. 


10  a. 


106. 


NUMBER  TEN. — Fold  diameters  of  square.     Open  square.     Fold 
lower  left  corner  to  meet  upper  right  corner.  Open  paper.   (No.  10  a) . 

Cut   out   triangle    in   upper  left   square 
(No.  10  b). 


Result  —  acute  angle. 


2G 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


11  a. 


NUMBER  ELEVEN.  —  Fold  diameters  of  square.  Open  paper. 
Fold  lower  right  corner  to  meet  upper  left  corner.  Open  paper. 
(Xo.  11  «).  Cut  out  upper  left  square  and  adjoining  triangle,  lic- 
(No.  11  &). 


suit  —  obtuse  angle. 


12. 


NUMBER  TWELVE.-— Fold  diameters  of  square.  Open  paper. 
Fold  each  corner  of  square  to  centre  of  square.  Open  paper.  Re- 
sult—  inscribed  square. 


TAPER-FOLDING. 


27 


NUMBER  THIRTEEN.  —  Hold  right  edge  of  square  in  right  hand 
and  left  edge  in  left  hand.  Pass  right  hand  under  towards  left,  and 
left  over  towards  right  till  upper  side  of  square  is  divided  into  third*. 
(See  No.  13  a}.  When  the  upper  edge  is  lapped  so  it  is  even  at 
both  ends  press  the  creases  down  the  whole  length  of  paper.  Open 
paper.  Result — square  divided  vertically  into  thirds.  (No.  13  b). 


13  a. 


136. 


14. 


NUMBER  FOURTEEN.  —  Fold  square  in  three  horizontal,  parallel 
lines.  (See  No.  2).  Open  paper.  Fold  upper  side  into  thirds. 
(See No.  13  a).  Open  paper.  Result  —  three  parallel  horizontal 
lines  divided  into  thirds. 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


NUMBER  FIFTEEN. — Fold  left  side  of  square  so  it  will  be  divided 
into  thirds  as  No.  13  a.  Press  paper  in  two  horizontal  folds.  Open 
paper.  Result  —  square  divided  into  thirds  horizontally. 


15. 


16. 


NUMBER  SIXTEEN. —  Fold  square  into  three  parallel  vertical  lines. 
(See  No.  4.)  Open  paper.  Divide  into  thirds.  (See  No.  15.) 
Open  paper.  Result — three  parallel,  vertical  lines  divided  into  thirds. 


NUMBER  SEVENTEEN.  —  Fold  square  into  four  small  squares  by 
folding  front  edge  to  meet  back  edge.  Then  left  edge  of  oblong  to 
meet  right  edge.  Hold  corner  which  forms  the  centre  of  the  paper 
in  left  hand.  Cut  in  a  line  curving:  outward  from  lower  riirht  corner 

O  ™ 

of  square  to  upper  left  corner.     Open  paper.     Result  —  circle. 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


29 


NUMBER  EIGHTEEN. — Cut  a  circle, 
one  diameter.     Result  —  semi-circle.  . 


(  See  No .  17).     Cut  through 


19. 


20. 


NUMBER  NINETEEN. — Cut  circle.  (See  No.  17).  Cut  from 
edge  of  circle  through  half  of  horizontal  diameter  —  also  from  centre 
of  circle  through  one  half  vertical  diameter.  Quarter  circle. 

NUMBER  TWENTY. — Cut  circle.  (See  No.  17).  Fold  edge  at 
end  of  one  diameter  to  meet  centre  of  same  diameter.  Open  paper. 
Cut  off  small  section.  Result  —  curved  edge  or  small  section  of 
circle. 


XIMBER  TWENTY-ONE.  — Fold  lower  left  corner  to  meet  upper- 


right  corner. 


Cut  through  diagonal. 


Result — right-angled  triangle. 


30 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


NUMBER  TWENTY-TWO.  —  Fold  front  edge  to  meet  back  edge. 
Open  paper.     Fold  front  edge  to  meet  centre  fold.     Open  paper. 

Open.     Fold  left  edge  to  meet 


Fold  back  edge  to  meet  centre  fold. 


226. 


22  c. 


22  rf. 


right  edge.  Open.  Fold  left  edge  to  meet  centre  vertical  fold. 
Open.  Fold  right  edge  to  meet  centre  fold.  Open.  Kesult  — 
sixteen  small  squares.  (Xo.  22  a.)  Cut  off  from  entire  upper  side 
of  square  a  strip  equal  to  one-eighth  the  width  of  square  or  one-half- 
inch.  (Xo.  22  b).  Fold  back  upper  left  corner  of  paper  so  that  the 


PAPER- FOLDING. 


31 


crease  will  extend  from  upper  end  of  vertical  diameter  to  lower  left 
corner  of  paper.  (No.  22  c).  Fold  back  upper  right  corner  so  the 
crease  will  extend  from  upper  end  of  vertical  diameter  to  lower  right 
corner  of  paper.  Cut  through  the  last  two  folds.  Result  —  equi- 
lateral triangle.  (No.  22  c/). 

NUMBER  TWENTY-THREE.  —  Fold  lower   left   corner  so  crease 
extends  from  upper  left  corner  to  middle  of  lower  side  of  square. 


Cut  through  fold. 


Result 


the  smaller  section  is  a  scalene  triangle. 


24. 


NUMBER  TWENTY-FOUR. — Fold  square  in  four  small  squares. 
(See  first  part  of  No.  17).  Fold  again  to  get  diagonals  of  small 
square.  Open  paper.  Result  —  four  squares  with  diagonals  form- 
ing construction  lines  for  various  designs. 


:32 


PAPER-FOLDlXG. 


PAPER-FOLDING    ILLUSTRATING    OBJECTS 

UPON   SOLIDS. 


BASED 


As  the  square  is  the  form  from  which  the  greatest  variety  of 
paper-folding  and  design  can  be  obtained,  it  can  be  used  throughout 
the  course  interspersed  with  studies  from  all  the  type-solids. 

Many  of  the  Kindergarten  forms  can  be  used  with  advantage. 

Here  is  a  simple  one,  a  little  basket. 


FIG.  1. 


FIG.  2. 


FIG.  3. 


FIG.  4. 


NUMBER  ONE.  —  Fold  front  edge  of  square  to  meet  back  edge. 
Open.  Fold  left  edge  to  meet  right  edge.  Open.  (Fig.  1).  Fold 
each  corner  to  centre  of  square,  (Fig.  2).  Turn  paper.  Fold  each 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


33 


corner  to  centre,  (Fig.  3).  Turn  paper.  Fold  back  each  of  the 
corners  that  meet  in  the  centre,  (Fig.  4).  Insert  the  fingers  and 
thumb  in  the  pockets  thus  made  and  press  the  four  under  corners 


together. 


Result  —  Fig.  5. 


FIG.  5. 


NUMBER  Two. 
Open, 
meet  centre. 


Fold  front  edge  of  square  to  meet  back  edge, 
fold. 


Fold  front  edge  to  meet  centre 


Fold  back  edge  to 


FIG.  7. 


Turn  paper — longest  edges  horizontal.  Fold  upper  and  lower 
left  corners  to  meet  on  horizontal  line.  Fold  right  corners  the  same 
way.  (Fig.  7). 


34 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


Fold  upper  edge  to  meet  lower  edge.      (Fig.  8).     Result 
boat.      (Fig.  9). 


NUMBER  THREE. — Divide   (by*  folding)    :i   square  into  thirds, 
both  vertically  and  horizontally.      (Fig.  10). 


FIG.  10.  FIG.  11. 

Cut  out  the  middle  square  on  upper  side.      (Fig.  11), 


FIG.  12. 


FIG.  13. 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


35 


Fold  upper  right  corner  of  upper  right  square  to  meet  the  lower 
left  corner  of  same  square.  Fold  upper  left  corner  of  upper  left 
square  to  meet  the  opposite  corner  of  the  same  square.  (Fig.  12). 

Fold  right  edge  of  paper  to  meet  the  vertical  crease  next  it. 
Fold  left  edge  of  square  to  meet  vertical  crease  next  it.  (Fig.  13) . 
Turn  paper.  Result  —  a  sled.  (Fig.  14). 


TIG.  14. 


FIG.  15. 


NUMBER  FOUR. — Let  the  children  cut  Kindergarten  designs 
from  colored  paper  and  paste  upon  gray  square. 

The  following  is  easily  made.  Fold  front  edge  to  meet  back 
edge.  Fold  left  edge  to  meet  right  edge.  Fold  lower  left  corner  to 
meet  upper  right  corner.  Open.  Fold  lower  left  corner  to  meet 
centre  of  square.  Fold  upper  right  corner  to  meet  centre  of  square. 
Cut  oft'  both  corners  through  the  folds  last  made.  Open  the  large 
figure  and  paste  on  gray  square.  Open  the  corner  cut  from  lower 
left  corner  of  square.  It  is  a  little  square.  Paste  diagonally  across 
open  centre  of  the  octagonal  figure.  The  other  corners  cut  off  are 
triangles.  Paste  them  around  four  sides  of  large  figure.  (Fig.  15). 

During  the  lesson  each  child  can  have  a  little  plate  of  paste, 
and  wooden  tooth-picks  are  better  than  brushes  with  which  to  apply 
the  paste. 


VIEWS   OF  CUBICAL  OBJECTS. 


<C 

< 


DRAWING  THE  VIEWS   OF   CUBICAL   OBJECTS. 

Drawing  from  cubical  objects  should  be  practiced  as  with  the 
sphere.  The  objects  which  have  been  modeled  in  clay,  and  also 
cubical  object*  in  the  room  should  be  drawn.  At  first,  it  is  best  to 
draw  views  of  v\\v\\face  separately,  as  young  children  are  rarely  able 
to  draw  correctly,  when  views  involving  persnective  are  attempted. 

Cubical  boxes,  and  baskets,  toy  money-banks,  toy  trunks,  (see 
illustration)  and  similar  objects  are  suitable  subjects. 


VIEWS  OF  CUBICAL  OBJECTS. 


37 


Another  step  in  clay  work  may  follow  the  paper-folding  and 
drawing. 

Cut  from  a  large  cube  a  plane  about  one-quarter  inch  in  thick- 
ness or  make  a  square  tablet  by  placing  bits  of  clay  on  a  slate  and 
moulding  them  into  a  flat  smooth  surface. 

With  a  sharp  slate  pencil,  draw  simple  designs  upon  the  clay. 
Clay  can  be  added  within  the  outline  of  the  figure,  building  it  up  in 
bas-relief  if  desired,  or  if  left  in  flat  outline  a  pretty  effect  will  be 
given  by  puncturing  the  surface  of  the  clay  around  the  design. 


CLA»    TABLET. 


Nearly  all  the  figures  used  in  the  drawing  course  can  be  repeated 
upon  cla}'.  The  youngest  pupils  can  have  various  plane  figures  cut 
from  card-board,  and  placing  them  on  the  clay,  trace  around  the 


edges. 


38 


THE  CYLINDER. 


THE   CYLINDER. 

Use  the  type-solids  as  in  the  previous  lessons.  Direct  the  child- 
ren to  compare  the  cylinder,  with  the  sphere,  and  the  cube.  They 
will  discover  that  it  will  roll,  and  stand,  and  that  its  surface  is  plane 
and  curved.  The  plane  faces  are  circles.  Give  the  name  —  cylin- 
der. 

The  children  can  model  a  cylinder  of  clay,  by  first  making  a 
sphere,  and  then  rolling  it  on  a  slate,  or,  between  the  hands,  until  the 
desired  length  is  obtained.  Then  flatten  the  ends  by  tapping  them 
alternately  upon  the  slate. 


THE  CYLINDER. 


39 


Cylindrical  objects  can  now  be  made  of  clay,  as,  a  rolling-pin, 
muff,  water-pot,  drum,  and  bottle. 


For  a  rolling-pin,  make  a  cylinder  of  the  desired  length.  Then 
make  small  cylinders  for  handles;  instead  of  flattening  the  outer 
ends  of  the  handles,  curve  them  slightly. 

The  rolling-pin  and  the  handles  may  be  joined  together  more 
firmly,  by  inserting  in  the  joined  ends  a  wooden  tooth-pick.  Join 
spouts  to  tea-kettles  and  watering  pots  in  the  same  manner. 

A. paper  cylinder  may  next  be  made. 

Fold  a  square  into  sixteen  small  squares.  Cut  out  each  corner 
square,  and  all  of  the  two  lower  squares,  except  a  slight  margin  as  in 


Fig.  1. 


o 


o 


FIG.  1. 


FIG.  2. 


Cut  circles  from  the  squares  on  left  and  right  sides,  leaving  the 
circles  attached  to  the  paper.      (Fig.  2). 


40 


THE  CYLINDER 


Fasten  the  upper  and  lower  edges  of  paper  together  by  sewing 
or  pasting,  and  join  the  circles  to  the  ends  of  the  hollow  cylinder 
thus  formed. 

Make  another  day  cylinder,  and  cut  it  in  halves,  through  its 
longest  diameter.  Scoop  out  a  portion  of  the  clay  from  a  half- 
cylinder^  and  a  trough  is  made.  By  attaching  the  trough  to  an 
upright  cylinder  the  principal  parts  of  a  pump  are  formed.  To  com- 
plete the  pump,  add  the  handle  and  spout. 


I 


The  half-cylinder,  may  also  form  a  basket  by  the  addition  of  a 
handle. 


THE  CYLINDER. 


41 


Cut  a  thin  slice  from  the  end  of  a  cylinder  and  mould  it  into  a 
round  cracker. 

From  a  thicker  slice  may  be  moulded  a  cheese,  or  a  circular 
box. 


4-2  THE   CYLINDER. 

Let  the  children  hold  a  cylinder  in  a  vertical  position,  in  front 
of  the  eye  and  study  the  outline. 
Then  find  a  tablet  like  it. 
Give  the  name  —  oblong. 


Let  the  children  find  tablets  like  the  upper  and  lower  face*  of 
the  cylinders — (circles)  . 

All  these  tablets  may  be  arranged  in  groups. 


c 


THE   CYLINDER. 


43 


Ask  the  children  to  cut  an  oblong  plane  and  a  circular  plane , 
from  the  day  cylinder.  Figures  containing,  oblongs  maybe  traced 
on  clay  plaques,  or  sewed  on  cards. 

A  great  variety  of  forms,  combining  oblongs,  squares  and  circles 
may  now  be  introduced. 


c 


The  oblong  can  be  made  easily,  by  cutting  a  square  in  halves. 
Oblongs    of  other  proportions    should  also  be    introduced   at   this 


stage. 


44 


T1JE   CYLINDER. 


Fold  a  square  to  mark  its  diameters,  and  then  use  the  entire 
length,  and  various  portions  of  the  width,  for  different  sized 
oblongs. 

Fold  another  paper  and  using  the  creases  for  diameters,  draw 
the  outline  of  an  oblong. 

Lay  xticks  to  form  the  outline  of  the  oblong. 

Give  arm  and  pencil-movements  as  for  a  square,  and  draw  the 
oblong. 


Draw  from  objects,  cylindrical  forms  and  have  the  children  des- 
cribe each  object  in  a  language  lesson. 


HE  VIEW  OF  SOLIDS.  4'» 


REVIEW   OF   SOLIDS. 

Direct  the  children  to  FEEL  of  the  sphere  —  cube  —  cylinder  — 
and  from  the  sense  of  touch  alone,  describe  these  solids. 

Then,  a  child  may  describe  to  the  class,  one  of  the  solids  (u'it'h- 
out  showing  it)  and  the  class  be  asked  to  name  the  solid  thufj  des- 
cribed. 

The  faces  of  solids  may  be  reviewed  in  the  same  manner. 


VIEWS  OF   SOLIDS. 

Tell  the  children  to  place  a  sphere  upon  their  desks  and  look 
down  upon  it.  This  view  of  the  sphere  is  called  a  top  view  and 
when  drawn,  is  represented  by  a  circle.  Direct  the  children  to 
draw  the  top  view. 

Then  ask  the  children  to  hold  the  sphere  on  a  level  with  the 
eye  This  view  is  called  the  front  view.  Let  the  children  draw  this 
front  view  and  the  result  will  be  a  circle,  as  before. 

Then  hold  sphere  above  the  eye  —  this  view  is  called  the  bottom 
view.  Draw  it  and  obtain  another  circle. 

Place  the  cube  and  cylinder  in  similar  positions  and  draw  the 
views. 

Build  up  a  group  of  these  solids  and  draw  the  front  view. 

The  teacher  should  frequently  describe  to  her  class  these  solids, 
(without  showing  them)  and  direct  the  children  to  draw  the  solids 
thus  described. 


40  COLOR. 


COLOR. 

The  study  of  color  should  now  be  introduced. 

As  color  holds  a  prominent  position  in  educational  progress, 
•knowledge  of  the  best  methods  of  teaching  it  becomes  essential. 
That  the  correct  blending  of  color  is  but  little  understood,  is  clearly 
evinced  in  our  daily  surroundings,  and  the  wisdom  of  introducing  to 
our  youngest  pupils  even,  a  practical  course  of  instruction  in  harmony 
of  color  is  beyond  question. 

Many  publications  upon  the  subject  deal  largely  with  the  theory 
of  color  as  applied  to  painting.  The  use  of  the  brush  is  one  method 
of  illustrating  color,  but  there  are  other  methods  more  practicable 
for  general  work  in  large  classes  of  young  children. 

Some  suggestions  of  methods  to  be  avoided  and  of  others  that 
'have  proved  successful  in  primary  classes  may  prove  helpful. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  teaching  terms  only,  instead  of 
giving  material  object  lessons.  Many  teachers  devote  much  time 
to  engraving  upon  the  minds  of  their  pupils  the  names  of  primary 
and  secondary  colors. 

While  it  may  be,  as  claimed  by  some  scientists,  that  red,  green 
and  violet  are  primary  in  accordance  with  the  vibration  of  certain  optic 
nerves — still,  red,  yellow  and  blue  pigments  are  primary  as  they 
form  the  basis  of  other  combinations. 

Yet  it.ia  not  necessary  to  burden  the  children's  minds  with  this. 

Care  also  should  be  taken  when  presenting  the  subject  of  com- 
plementary colors,  to  eradicate  that  deplorable  taste  that  delights  in 
such  combinations  as  flaming  orange  with  brightest  blue,  lest  a  repe- 
tition of  the  case  occur,  where  the  little  girl  insisted  upon  dressing 


COLOR.  47 

her  dolls  in  those    outre    colors  because   her  teacher  used  them   in 
paper  designs  and  taught  her  to  combine  them. 

The  great  object  to  be  sought  is  the  proper  use  or  harmony  of 
color.  Nature  should  be  our  model.  Children  must  first  learn 
color  by  sight  and  name  through  association  with  color.  The  rain- 
bow is  pure  color,  and  the  colors  which  more  nearly  resemble  it  are 
called  standard  colors;  for  example,  carmine  is  a  standard  red. 

For  the  first  le-son  suspend  before  the  class  a  large  piece  of 
standard  red  paper,  and  one  of  standard  yellow. 

Have  a  half-pint  bottle  nearly  full  of  water  and  dissolve  a  little 
carmine  water-color  paint  in  the  bottle  till  the  liquid  is  of  proper 
color  and  another  pleasing  object  of  standard  red  is  presented. 

Do  the  same  with  chrome  yellow. 

Paste  paper  of  these  same  colors  on  small  cards  and  distribute 
among  the  children. 

Let  each  child  match  the  card  to  the  large  paper. 

Each  child  name  color  of  large  papers. 

Each  child  find  red  and  yellow  cards  as  called  for. 

Each  child  tell  name  of  color  of  card  as  given. 

Teach  blue  in  the  same  way.  The  best  blue  for  the  liquid  is 
cobalt.  Review  the  three  colors. 

Objects  made  by  folding  colored  papers  is  one  pleasing  method 
of  testing  the  knowledge  of  children  in  this  review. 

To  teach  orange,  hold  before  the  class  a  clear  glass  tumbler. 
l\)iir  into  it  a  little  of  the  red  liquid,  then  an  equal  quantity  of  yel- 
low liquid.  The  mixture  is  orange,  and  the  transformation  taking 
place  before  the  children's  eyes  fixes  their  attention,  and  the  name  of 
the  new  color,  orange,  is  more  easily  remembered. 


48  COLOR. 

Suspend  a  large  orange  paper,  and  giving  the  children  orange 
and  yellow  cards,  let  them  match,  distinguish,  and  name. 

Place  yellow  tissue-paper  upon  red  tissue  paper.  Allow  the 
light  to  shine  through,  and  orange  is  seen.  These  papers  can  be 
folded  into  pretty  forms. 

Gelatine  tilms  also  illustrate  the  blending  of  colors. 

A  red  and  a  yellow  triangle  with  a  square  of  orange  between 
them  may  be  pasted  upon  gray  paper  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  red 
and  yellow  make  orange. 

Also  make  them  in  worsted,  on  Kindergarten  cards. 

Teach  green  by  mixing  blue  and  yellow  the  same  as  red  and 
yellow.  Use  paper  forms,  worsted,  and  any  practical  illustration  of 
the  subject.  Teach  violet  by  mixing  red  and  blue. 

This  circular  diagram  will  illustrate  the  relation  of  colors  pre- 
viouslv  mentioned. 


Thus  the  orange  is  placed  between  red  and  yellow  because  it  \- 
produced  by  the  mixture  of  those  two  colors. 


COLOE.  49 

Fora  similar  reason  green  is  placed  between  yellow  and  blue, — 
and  violet  between  blue  and  red. 

Let  children  bring  objects  of  these  different  colors. 

Name  colors  of  objects  remembered  but  not  seen  in  the  school- 
room. 

Black  and  white  should  be  noticed,  and  brown  and  gray 
taught. 

Colors  are  pleasing  to  children,  and  if  they  are  allowed  to  make 
something  of  these  pretty  papers  and  worsted,  under  proper  guid- 
ance their  taste  in  color  will  be  easily  cultivated. 

These  different  standard  colors  cannot  be  combined  in  any 
simple  work  the  children  could  make  at  this  stage,  but  any  one  of 
these  bright  colors  can  be  used  with  gray  or  some  other  neutral  tint. 

Tones  lighter  and  darker  than  the  standard  should  be  taught. 

Mix  the  standard  red  liquid  with  white,  (Chinese  white)  also 
with  black  (India  ink). 

Describe  as  light,  and  dark  red.  Have  papers  of  several  shades 
of  red,  but  all  belonging  to  the  same  scale.  Let  children  select  all 
the  r^ds  from  among  other  colors. 

Let  them  find  and  name  red,  light-red,  dark-red.  Do  the  same 
with  all  the  colors  previously  studied,  omitting  the  mixing  of  black 
liquid  with  yellow  or  orange  as  dark-green  will  result. 

Make  a  chart  having  three  shades  of  each  of  the  colors,  and  let 
the  children  match  exactly  with  their  small  cards. 

Simple  designs  may  now  be  made  by  combining  a  tint  and 
shade  of  any  one  color.  Thus  light-red  with  dark-red  —  light-green 
with  dark-green.  Under  careful  guidance  the  children  will  uncon- 
sciously learn  theory  and  harmony  of  color  by  constant  association 
of  proper  colors  in  their  daily  exercises. 


50 


COLOR. 


Let  children  describe  colored  forms,  viz.,  "This  is  a  red 
circle."  "This  is  ;i  yellow  square."  "This  figure  .has  a  large  dark- 
green  square  and  small  light-green  triangles." 

The  following  designs  may  be  made  of  paper  : 


i.  2. 

NUMBER  ONE. — Red  squares.     Black  circle. 

NUMBER  Two. — Yellow  circles.     Black  squares. 


3.  4. 

NUMBER  THREE. — Pink  circles.     Black  square. 
NUMBER  FOUR. — Large   square   or   two   oblongs  of  dark  red, 
small  squares  light  pink. 


COLOR.  .-,1 

NUMBER  FIVE. — Dark  violet  square.     Light  violet  triangles. 

NUMBER  Six. — Brown  bronze  square.  Light,  yellow  semi- 
circles. 

NUMBER  SEVEN. — Three  shades  of  one  color. 

An  almost  inexhaustible  field  of  color  lessons  can  be  found  in 
coloring  the  clay  forms  made  by  children. 

Dry  paint  in  the  form  of  a  powder  may  be  found  at  the  ait 
stores.  This  powder  comes  in  various  shades  and  tints.  If  the 
correct  shades  of  powder  be  rubbed  with  the  finger  upon  the  clay 
objects  before  they  harden,  the  resemblance  to  the  object  repro- 
duced will  be  greatly  increased.  Treat  a  clay  banana  in  this  way. 
Cover  the  c\a.y  thoroughly  with  the  correct  shade  of  yellow,  and  add 
touches  of  green  on  the  curves  and  near  the  end.  A  touch  of  brown 
on  the  stem  will  complete  the  coloring,  and  the  resemblance  to  the 
natural  fruit  will  be  quite  marked. 

The  clay  peach  similarly  treated  acquires  the  beautiful  velvety 
appearance  characteristic  of  the  fruit. 

Children  are  often  perplexed  in  naming  colors  by  their  inability 
to  distinguish  a  hue  of  color  from  a  shade  or  tint,  of  the  standard. 
Thus  carmine,  scarlet  and  magenta  are  all  known  to  them  as  red, 
but  only  the  carmine  can  be  assigned  to  the  scale  of  standard  red. 
To  explain  these  differences  resort  to  the  colored  liquids  again. 
Assuming  orange  to  be  produced  by  mixing  equal  parts  of  red  and 
yellow,  add  more  red  to  the  orange  and  a  color  is  made  that  may  be 
termed  orange-red.  By  mixing  white  with  orange-red,  its  tint, 
(which  is  salmon)  is  produced.  By  mixing  black  with  orange-red, 
its  shade  (or  scarlet)  is  produced.  These  tones  are  the  yellow  hues 
of  red. 


.",2  COLOR. 

Show  orange  again  and  add  move   yellow  —  giving  buff  or  the 
red    hues     of    yellow.      Young    children    can    describe    carmine    as 
standard   red, —  scarlet    as  a  color   having  more    red  than  yellow  - 
and  1m ft*  as  a  color  having  more  yellow  than  red. 

There  is  one  red  which  has  not  been  mentioned  in  the  scales, 
but  which  children  are  very  apt  to  bring  as  a  sample  —  viz.,  mairenta. 
This  is  a  mixture  of  red  and  blue  like  the  purple  only  in  unequal 
quantities,  nearly  all  red  with  but  little  blue.  The  greens  can  be 
divided  into  blue-greens  and  yellow-greens.  For  blue-green  put 
more  blue  than  yellow.  For  yellow-green  put  more  yellow  than 
blue.  Violet  can  be  divided  the  same  way.  More  red  than  blue, 
giving  red-violet  —  more  blue  than  red,  giving  blue-violet. 

This  chart  will  be  found  to  illustrate  the  proper  position  of  the 
hues  of  these  colors. 


HUES. 


HUES. 


TINT, 

Pink. 

Salmon. 

Light 
Orange. 

Buff. 

Cream. 

Apple 
Green. 

STANDARD,    . 

Red. 

Or  ange- 
red. 

Orange. 

Orange- 
yellow. 

Yellow. 

Yellow- 
green. 

SHADE,     . 

Garnet. 

Scarlet. 

Dark 
Oranrre. 

Dark 
O.  Yellow. 

Corn. 

Dark 

Y  .  Green. 

HUES. 


HUES. 


HUES. 


TINT, 

Light 
Green. 

Light-blue 
Green. 

Light 
Blue. 

Lavendar. 

Light 
Violet. 

Lilac. 

STANDARD,    . 

Green. 

Blue- 
green  . 

Blue. 

Blue 
Violet. 

Violet. 

Red 
Violet. 

SHADE,     . 

Dark 
Green. 

Dark 
B.  Green. 

Dark 
Blue. 

Dark 
B.  Violet. 

Dark 
Violet. 

Dark 
R.  Violet. 

TAPER-CUTTING. 


PAPER  CUTTING.— COLOR  WORK. 

The  following  designs  can  be  cut  from  paper  and  placed  upon 
a  suitable  background  allowing  the  under  color  to  show  through  the 
openings.  Cut  the  design  from  any  bright  color  and  place  over 
black,  or  gray,  or  white  paper.  Another  set  can  be  made  In- 
cutting  from  a  tint  and  placing  over  a  shade  of  the  same  color.  If 
the  designs  are  cut  from  gold  or  silver  paper  and  placed  over  proper 
colors  the  effect  is  agreeable. 

Fold  the  front  edge  of  a  square  to  meet  back  edge.  Fold  left 
edge  of  oblong  to  meet  right  edge.  Fold  lower  right  corner  to 
meet  upper  left  corner.  Upon  the  triangle  thus  formed  dra\v  the 
figures  indicated  by  dotted  lines  and  cut  through  dotted  lines, 
thus  — 


Figure  A.  when  opened  gives  Fig.  1. 


FIG.  A. 


Flu.  1. 


PAPER-CUTTING. 
Figure  13.  when  opened  gives  Fig.  2. 


FIG.  15. 


FIG. 


Figure  C.  when  opened  gives  Fig.  3. 


FIG.  C. 


TAPER-CUTTING. 
Figure  D.  when  opened  gives  Fig.  4. 


f>5 


FIG.  D. 


FIG.  4. 


Figure  E.  when  opened  gives  Fig.  5. 


FIG.  E. 


TIG.  5. 


TERTIARY   COLORS. 


TERTIARY   COLORS. 

The  Tertiary  colors  an'  citrine,  olive,  and  russet.  Citrine  is  a 
combination  of  orange  and  green.  Russet —  of  orange  and  purple. 
Olive — -of  purple  and  green.  Citrine  is  called  the  yellow  tertiary, 
because  yellow  predominates  —  being  in  both  the  orange  and  green. 
Iviisset — is  called  the  red  tertiary,  &s  red  predominates.  Olive  — 
the  blue  tertiary,  as  bLie  predominates. 


CONTRAST  AND   HARMONY. 

Contrast  must  not  be  mistaken  for  harmony.  Harmony  may 
include  contrast,  but,  contrast  to  be  harmonious,  must  always  be 
delicate,  never  coarse.  JJhie  and  Orange  arc  complementary  color*, 
because  each  increases  the  brilliancy  of  the  other,  but  the  violent  con- 
trast offends  good  taste.  Tints  and  shades  of  both  colors  are  often 
blended  with  harmonious  effects,  but  children  should  use  simpler 
combinations. 


THE   HEMISPHERE 


THE   HEMISPHERE. 

The  teacher  will  show  to  the  children  two  hemispheres,  so  placed, 
as  to  form  a  sphere. 

Separate  them,  and  ask  the  children  to  name  them — the  natural 
reply  will  l>e,  "half  of  a  sphere." 

Give  the  proper  name  —  hemisphere. 

Xow,  distribute  hemispheres  to  the  class,  and  ask  the  children 
to  describe  them.  They  will  see  that  the  hemisphere  has  one  plane 
face  and  one  curved  face.  The  plane  face  is  a  circle. 


The  day  hemisphere  is  formed  by   cutting  the   clay   sphere    in 
halves. 


58 


THE   HEMISISPHERE. 


Model  clay  objects  resembling  the  Hemisphere  —  as  a  hat,  a  half 
apple,  or  a  fruit  dish. 


Have  the  children  find  the  tablet  like  the  plane  face  of  the  hemis- 
phere (circle). 

Direct  the  children  to  hold  the  hemisphere  on  a  level  with  the 
eye,  the  plane  face  downward  and  find  tablet  like  this  view.  Give 
the  name  —  semi-circle. 


These  semi-circular   tablets  may  be    so  placed  as  to    form  a 
border. 


THE  HEMISPHERE. 


59 


Place    semi-circles    around    the 
oblong  —  to  make  a  quatre-foil . 


sides  of  a    square,  and  of  an 


C 


CLAY  TRACINGS. —  The  teacher  may  cut  from  cards,  various 
forms,  resembling  the  semi-circle,  and  let  the  children  place  the 
forms  on  clay  tablets,  and  trace  around  the  edges.  Good  subjects 
may  be  selected  from  the  tablet  forms  already  mentioned,  to  which 
may  be  added  —  the  side  view  of  an  open  umbrella,  and  mouse- 
trap and  mouse. 


\ 


THE   HEMISPHERE. 


These  same  clay  and  tablet  forms  may  be  pricked  on   cards,  to 
be  sewed  by  the  children. 


/\ 

^  's 

'    / 

/? 


SEWING  CAKD. 


The  children  having  now  received  these  various  impressions  of 
semi-circles,  in  clay,  card,  and  sewing,  should  give  expression,  by 
paper-folding,  and  drawing,  to  their  knowledge  of  this  form. 

PAPER-FOLDING. —  Cut  a  circle  (See  page  28,  Fig.  17)  and  then 
cut  it  in  halves  (semi-circle).  Fold  a  four-inch  paper  square  to  find 
the  diameter vv ,  and  upon  them  draw  semi-circles. 

Repeat  these  semi-circles,  by  drawing  free  hand,  both  the 
diameters  and  curves. 

The  children  may  now  draw  free  hand,  simple  objects  having 
the  form  of  the  hemisphere.  Draw  also  upon  clay  tablet. 

DESIGNS.  — A  practical  application  of  the  form  study,  may  now 
be  made  by  the  children  in  making  the  following  design. 


THE   HEMISPHERE.  61 

Upon  a  square  of  red  paper  draw  the  quatre-foil,  as  in  Fig.  1. 


FIG.  1. 


Cut  out  the  quatre-foil. 


FIG.  2. 


FIG.  s. 


Upon  a  square  of  black  paper  (of  same  size  as  iTijgf.  1)  draw 
Fig.  2. 

Cut  out  the  central  drawing  and  place  it  in  the  centre  of  tfie 
quatre-toil,  mounting  the  figure  thus  formed,  upon  a  black  or  neutral 
ground.  (See  Fig.  3). 


SQUARE  TRISM. 


SQUARE   PRISM. 

The  teacher  will  hold  up  before  the  children,  a  cube  composed 
of  four  square  prism  solids,  and  then  separate  the  blocks,  to  demon- 
strate that  the  square  prism  is  one-fourth  of  the  cube. 

Then,  direct  the  children  to  model  the  clay  cube,  which  they 
are  to  cut  vertically,  into  quarters  and  thus  obtain  the  square 
prismi 

Distribute  the  type  solid  amongst  the  class  and  ask  the  children 
to  describe  the  faces  and  angles.  (Four  equal  oblongs  and  two 
sjquares) . 

The  children  may  form  a  square  prism  from  a  clay  cylinder  by 
flattening  the  curved  surface,  into  four  oblongs  of  equal  size. 


SQUARE  PRISM. 


63 


Direct  the  children  to  make  a  paper  square  prism.  First  fold 
a  square  into  sixteen  squares,  then  cut  off  squares  1,  3,  4,  13.  15, 
16. 


Edges  to  be  joined  by  sewing  or  pasting. 


A  .skeleton  square  prism  can  be  made  with  slicks  and  peas. 


64 


SQUARE  PRISM. 


Have  the  children  model  in  clay,  objects  based  upon  the  square 
priym  —  as  a  carpenter's  plane,  chest,  and  oblong  basket. 


Faces  of  the  square  prism.     The  children  may  find  tablets  like 
the  faces   (four  oblongs  —  two  squares) . 


Let  the  children  be  reviewed  by  finding  the  vertical,  horizontal, 
and  parallel  edges  and  right  angles  of  the  square  prism. 


SQUARE  PRISM. 


PAPER  FOLDING. —  Cut  a  paper  oblong  —  fold  for  diameters 
and  diagonals  —  then  make  an  oblong  clay  tablet  of  the  same  size, 
and  mark  on  it  the  diameters  and  diagonals. 


Make  another  clay  tablet  of  the  same  size,  and  draw  the  diameters 
upon  it,  place  a  point  in  the  centre  of  each  half-diameter,  connect  the 
points  by  lines  (to  form  a  Rhombus}  add  more  clay  to  the  rhombus, 
to  build  it  up  above  the  surface  of  the  oblong. 


66 


EIGHT-ANGLED  TRIANGULAR  PRISM. 


THE   RIGHT-ANGLED  TRIANGULAR   PRISM. 

Let  the  children  mould  a  clay  square  prism  and  bisect  it  diag- 
onally inform  a  Right-Angled  Triangular  Prism. 


Give  the  type  solid  to  the  class  to  study,  and  compare  with  the 
clay.     They  will  find  Jive  plane  faces,  three  oblongs  (one  wider  than 


RIGHT-ANGLED  TRIANGULAR  PRISM. 


67 


the  others)  and  two  TRIANGLES.     Let  the  children  describe  the  tri- 
angular face  as  to  its  sides  and  angles. 

With  an  open  pen-knife,  the  teacher  may  illustrate  the  three 
angles  of  the  triangle. 

Give  the  terms  triangle  and  acute-angle. 


The  right-angled  triangular  prism  may  also  be  modeled  from 
the  clay  cylinder,  by  flattening  the  cylinder  upon  three  sides, 
remembering  to  finish  one  face  broader  than  the  others. 


Have  the  children  mould  k  clay  square  prism,  and  a  clay  right- 
angled  triangular  prism  of  the  same  length.  The  two  prisms  prop- 
erly joined  resemble  a  house, — outline  doors  and  windows  on  the 
square  prism. 


68  RIGHT-ANGLED  TRIANGULAR  PRISM. 

Find  tablets  like  the  faces  of  the   triangular  prism  and   form 
designs. 


Let  the  children  cut  planes  from  the  clay  triangular  prism,  and 
also  cut  the  the  same  forms  from  paper. 

A  right-angled  triangle  can  be  cut  from  paper,  by  bisecting  a 
square  diagonally. 


The  children  should  lay  sticks   for  oblongs  and  triangles,  and 


then  draw  the  figures. 


EQUILATERAL  TRIANGULAR  PRISM. 


EQUILATERAL  TRIANGULAR  PRISM. 

The  teacher  will  distribute  to  the  class  the  type  solid  square, 
and  equilateral  triangular  prisms. 

By  comparison,  the  children  will  find  that  the  oblongs  are  equal 
in  size,  in  each  prism.  They  will  also  find  that  the  equilateral  tri- 
angular prism  has  but' three  oblong  faces,  and  that  the  triangular 
faces  have  three  equal  sides. 

Give  the  name  —  equilateral  triangular  prism. 

Have  the  children  mould  a  clay  equilateral  triangular  prism, 
from  a  clay  cylinder,  by  flattening  the  curved  surface  to  form  three 
equal  oblongs. 

Next,  direct  the  children  to  make  this  prism  from  paper  —  in 
this  manner — fold  each  side  of  a  square  into  four  equal  parts, 


70 


EQUILATERAL  TRIANGULAR  PRISM. 


making  sixteen  small  squares,  cut  off  the  lower  row  of  squares,  then 
cut  off  each  corner  square.      (Fig.  1). 


FIG.  i. 


Cut   the  left  and  right   squares    to  form  equilateral    triangles. 
(Fig.  2). 


FIG.  -2. 


Fasten  the  edges  to  form  an  equilateral  triangular  prism. 


EQUILATERAL  TRIANGULAR  PRISM. 


A  skeleton  prism  may  be  made  with  sticks  and  peas  and  the 
children  study  the  edges  and  corners. 

Have  the  children  cut  planes  from  the  clay  equilateral  triangu- 
lar prism,  and  give  new  term  —  equilateral  triangle. 

Find  tablets  like  the  faces  of  this  prism,  and  arrange  in  designs. 


72  EQUILATERAL   TRIANGULAR  PRISM. 

Trace  the  figures  on  clay,  and  sew  on   cards. 


Fold    paper   to    form    equilateral    triangles.        (See   Series  I. 
Fig.  22). 

Draw  these  figures  : 


Draw  objects  based  upon  the  equilateral-triangular  prism. 

Place  the  square  prism,  and  the  right-angled  triangular  prism 
so  that  the  ends  form  an  obtuse  angle.  Illustrate  with  an  open 
pen-knife,  and  let  the  children  lay  sticks  to  form  the  angle,  and  then 
draw  it. 


KEVIEW.  73 


REVIEW. 

At  this  point  it  should  be  ascertained  if  the  children  have  a 
clear  idea  of  the  type-forms.  Without  showing  the  solids  the  chil- 
dren should  be  asked  to  state  what  they  know  about  their  surface  — 
t  le  kind,  number,  and  shape  of  faces,  the  edges  and  corners. 

Let  the  children — from  memory  —  model  them  of  clay,  and 
when  practicable  make  them  of  paper.  Have  them  draw  the  faces 
and  views. 

Ask  them  to  mould  in  clay  familiar  objects  which  they  have  not 
made  in  school. 

Much  good  will  be  derived  from  these  review  lessons,  and  pos- 
sibly marked  latent  talent  will  be  shown.  By  this  means,  errors  and 
misunderstandings  will  be  quickly  detected.  The  same  test  should 
be  applied  to  drawing. 

An  excellent  test  in  drawing  will  be  found  in  a  dictation  exer- 
cise —  for  example,  tell  the  children  to  think  of  a  square  prism,  four 
inches  long,  two  inches  wide,  and  two  inches  high,  resting  on  the 
table,  and  on  a  level  with  the  eye.  Suppose  the  prism  to  be  in  a 
direct  front  view,  with  an  oblong  face,  in  a  vertical  position.  Ask 
the  children  to  draw  the  front  view. 

Xext  think  of  a  cube,  placed  on  that  prism  so  that  the  edges  and 
corners  of  the  two  solids  meet.  Add  the  drawing  of  the  front  view 
of  the  cube,  to  that  of  the  prism.  Tell  the  children  to  imagine  the 
cube  replaced  by  an  apple,  and  draw  that  view. 


74 


REVIEW. 


After  the  drawings  have  been  made,  SHOW  the  groups  of  objects. 
Carefully  place  the  objects,  so  that  the  views  seen  by  the  children, 
may  exactly  correspond  with  the  dictation  exercise. 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


75 


PAPER  FOLDING. 

A  series  of  foldings  is  here  given,  which  may  be  developed  in 
regular  order,  although  it  is  better  to  use  each  figure  after  studying 
the  solid  from  which  it  is  derived.  The  same  method  should  be 
followed,  as  in  the  first  series  of  paper  foldings,  viz. :  Fold  and  cut 
from  dictation.  Next  fold  and  trace  outline  with  lead  pencil.  Then 
draw  same  figure,  —  testing  with  ruler.  Finally  draw  free  hand 
upon  paper. 

Papers  used  in  folding  are  four  inches  square. 

FIGURE  ONE. — Keep  paper  upon  desk,  not  allowing  it  to  be 
held  in  the  air  when  folded. 

Fold  front  edge  to  meet  back  edge  and  left  edge  of  oblong  so 
formed  to  meet  right  edge. 

Fold  upper  left  corner  of  square  to  meet  lower  right  corner. 


I  IG.  A. 


FIG.  i. 


Next  fold  so  crease  shall  extend  from  centre   of  lower  side  to 
upper  right  corner.      (Fig.  A). 

Cut  through  last  fold.     Result,  (Fig.  1). 


76 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


Now  fold'another  square  just  like  first  one,  and  instead  of  cutting, 
open  the  square,  when  the  outline  of  star  will  be  seen. 
Let  children  trace  with  pencil. 


FIG.  2. 


FIGURE  Two.  — Fold  and  cut  as  in  Fig.  1. 

Fold    another    square    to    obtain  inscribed  square.      (See   first 

series,  Fig.  12). 

Cut  out  inscribed  square  and  place  over  star. 

Fold  another  square  upon  its  diameters  and  cut  out  one  of  the 
umall  squares.     Place  this  upon  the  square  on  the  star  as  in  Fig.  2. 


FIG.  B. 


FIG.  3. 


FIGURE  THREE.  —  Use  oblong  4x2  inches,  or  one-half  of  four 
inch  square.     Place  on  desk,  long  edges  vertical.     Fold  front  edge 


to  meet  back  edge. 


Left  edge  to  meet  right  edge. 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


Cut  from  lower  right  corner  to  upper  left  corner. 
Result,  Fig.  3)  . 


(Fig.   B. 


FIG.  C. 


FIG.  4. 


FIGURE  FOUR.  —  Divide  square  into  thirds  vertically  and  hori- 
zontally. Cut  out  each  corner  square.  Cut  upper  and  lower  squares 
into  triangles.  (See  Fig.  C).  Fold  to  form  envelope  (Fig.  4). 

FIGURE  FIVE.  —  Cut  equilateral  triangle.  (Series  1,  number 
22). 

Place  it  with  base  horizontal  on  front  of  desk. 

Fold  left  angle  to  meet  right  angle.  Fold  lower  right  angle  to 
meet  upper  angle.  Fold  left  angle  to  meet  right  angle. 


FIG.  D. 


FIG.  5. 


Cut  from  middle  of  lower  edge  to  point  equally  distant  from 

(Fig.  D.     Result,  Fig.  5).  . 


right  corner  on  right  edge. 


78 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


FIGURE  Six. —  Fold  triangle  as  in  Fig.  5.  Cut  from  middle  of 
louver  edge,  in  a  vertical  line  to  meet  left  edge.  (Fig.  E.  Result. 
Fig.  G). 


FIG.  E. 


TIG.  G. 


FIGURE  SEVEN. —  Fold  square  into  small  right-angled-triangle 


FIG.  F. 


FIG.  7. 


like  first  part  of  Fig.  1.     Then  cut  from  middle  of  lower  side  to 
middle  of  right   side.     (Fig.  F.     Result,  Fig.  7). 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


79 


FIGURE  EIGHT.  —  Fold  as    for  Fig.    7    but  cut   line  curving 

C_?  r  O 

inward.     Fig.  G.     Result,  Fig.  8). 


FIG.  G. 


FIG 


FIGURE  NIXE. —  Fold  front  edge  to  meet  back  edge,  and  left 


edge  to  meet  right  edge. 


\ 


FIG.  H. 


FIG.  9. 


Fold  upper  left,  upper  right  and  lower  right  corners  to  meet 
in  centre  of  square.     Fig.  H.     Cut  off  corners.     Result,  Fig.   9). 


80 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


FIGURE  TKX. — Fold  square  into  right-angled-triangle,  and  rut 
in  line  curving  upward  from  lower  right  corner  to  a  point  on  left 
edge.  (Fig  I.  Result  Fig.  10). 


Fl...  I. 


FIG.  10. 


FIG.  J. 


Fiu.  11. 


FIGURE  ELEVEN. —  Fold  square  into  sixty-four  small  squares. 
Then  into  right-angled-triangle,  and  cut  as  indicated  by  dotted  line. 
(Fig.  J.  Result,  Fig.  11). 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


81 


FIG.  K. 


FIG.  12. 


(FIGURE  TWELVE. —  Fold  as  for  Fig.  11. 

Cut  curve  as  per  dotted  line.      (Fig.  K.     Result,  Fig.  12). 


FK  .  13. 


FIGURE  THIRTEEN. —  Fold  square  so  it  will  be  divided  into 
thirds.  Cut  out  each  corner  square.  Result,  (Fig.  13  or  Greek 
Cross). 


82 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


FIG.  I. 


FIG.  II. 


FIGURE  FOURTEEN. —  Divide  square  into  thirds.  Open  square. 
Fold  front  edge  of  square  to  meet  back  edge.  Fold  left  edge  to 
meet  right  edge,  (Fig.  I.)  Fold  upper  right  corner,  upper-left 
corner  and  lower-right  corner  as  in  Fig.  II.  Cut  off  these 
corners.  Open  paper.  (Result,  Fig.  14). 


Fit  .  14. 


FIGURE  FIFTEEN. —  Fold  square  as  for  Fig.  1.  Cut  in  a  line 
curving  inward  from  lower-right  corner  to  upper-left  corner, 
(Fig.  III).  Open  paper.  (Result,  Fig.  15)  . 


PAPER-FOLDIXG. 


83 


FIG.  ill. 


FIG.  15. 


FIGURE  SIXTEEN. —  Maltese  Cross.  Fold  as  in  Fig.  I.  Then 
upper  left  corner  to  lower  right  corner,  (Fig.  IV.)  Cut  from 
middle  of  right  edge  to  point  on  left  edge  which  intersects,  crease 
from  first  fold.  Open  paper.  (Result,  Fig.  16). 


FIG.  IV. 


FIG.  16. 


FIGURE  SEVENTEEN. — Cut  circle    (See    Series   I.    Fig.   17). 
Cut  another  square  in  halves.     Place  one  of  the  oblongs  on  desk 


with  short  edges  horizontal. 


Fold  front  edge  to  meet  back  edge. 


84 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


Fold  left  edge  to  meet  right  edge. 


Cut  in  line  curving  outward 
from  lower  right  corner  to  upper  left  corner.  Fig.  V.  Open  paper. 
Result,  (an  ellipse).  Place  ellipse  so  diameters  coincide  with  dia- 
meters of  circle.  (Result,  Fig,  17). 


FIG.  V. 


FIGURE  EIGHTEEN. —  Cut  ellipse  as  in  Fig.  17.  and  cut  circle 
from  one-fourth  of  large  square.  Place  the  circle  upon  the  ellipse  as 
in  Fi<r.  18. 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


85 


FIGURE  NINETEEN. —  Cut  circle  four  inches  in  diameter.  Fold 
edges  together  till  circle  is  divided  into  eighths,  (Fig.  VI).  Fold 
curved  edges  as  in  line  a,  I.  Open  last  fold.  Cut  from  point  b 
to  centre  of  line  «,  b.  Then  cut  in  line  curving  upward  to  point  c. 
(Fig.  VI).  Open  paper.  (Result,  Fig.  19). 


FIG.  VI. 


FIG.  VII. 


FIG.  20. 


FIGURE  TWENTY. —  Oval.  Divide  square  into  thirds.  Open 
paper.  Fold  left  edge  to  meet  right  edge.  Cut  in  a  curved  line 
from  lower  left  corner  to  upper  left  corner,  (Fig.  VII).  Open 
paper.  (Result,  Fig.  20). 


86 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


FIGURE  TWENTY-ONE. —  Axis  of  .symmetry.  Fold  an  oblong 
as  in  Fig.  V.  Cut  from  centre  of  lower  edge  to  centre  of  right 
edge,  then  to  upper  left  corner.  Fig.  VIII.  Open  paper.  (Re- 
sult, Fig.  21). 


FIG.  VIII. 


FIG.  21. 


1. 


FIG.  IX. 


FIG.  22. 


FIGURE  TWENTY-TWO. —  Fold  squares  into  fourths  both  ways. 
Open  paper.  Fold  left  edge  to  meet  right  edge.  Cut  as  indicated 
by  curved  lines  Fig.  IX.  Open  paper.  (Result,  Fig.  22). 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


FIGURE  TWENTY-THREE. —  Fold  square  so  it  is  divided  into 
thirds.  Open  paper.  Fold  left  edge  to  right  edge,  and  cut  as  in 
Fig.  X.  Open  paper.  (Result,  Fig  23). 


FIG.  23. 


FIG.  XI. 


FIG.  24. 


FIGURE  TWENTY-FOUR. —  Fold  as  for  Fig.  X.  and  cut   as   in 
Fig.  XI.     Open  paper.     (Result,  Fig.  24). 


88 


PAPER-FOLDING. 


During  these  paper-foldings,  the  children  have  learned  to  divide 
the  squares  into  halves,  thirds  and  fourths  ;  and  now,  the  dictation 
may  be  assisted,  by  using  the  terms  —  bisect,  trisect,  and  quadrisect. 

The  facts  of  proportion,  and  symmetry,  should  be  presented; 
for  example,  give  the  children  an  oblong  ^aper,  four  inches  long, 
and  two  inches  wide.  Let  them  describe  the  sides  and  angles.  The 
short  sides  are  one-half  th&  length  of  the  long  sides.  The  long  sides 
are  twice  the  length  of  the  short  sides.  Fold  for  the  diameter,  by 
bisecting  the  sides.  The  divisions  must  be  equal,  and  the  proportions 
even.  Bisect  each  half  diameter,  thus  quadrisecting  the  entire 
diameter. 

•Connect  these  points,  and  see  that  the  different  portions  of  the 
figure,  balance  each  other. 


Many  dictation  lessons  should  be  given  upon  the  forms  already 
studied,  as  well  as  upon  new  figures,  containing  the  same  principles. 
Not  only  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  variety,  in  the  methods  of 
impressing  facts,  but  also  to  ascertain  the  ability  of  the  children  to 
express  what  they  have  learned. 


DIMENSIONS. 


89 


DIMENSIONS. 

The  children  have  studied  solids,  as  u'holes,  their  faces,  and 
edges — also  representations  of  them,  by  foldings  and  drawings. 

The  paper  used  thus  far,  has  been  of  uniform  size  (4  inches) 
and  the  children  should  have,  by  this  time,  a  clear  idea  of  a  four- 
inch  square,  and  of  its  proportions  in  halves,  quarters  and  thirds. 

Attention  should  now  be  given  to  the  study  of  the  inch.  Paper- 
folding  is  one  of  the  best  methods  to  use  in  teaching  it,  and  the 
figures  may  be  repeated  by  drawing  from  dictation  —  as  for  example, 
fold  a  four-inch  square,  so  that,  it  will  be  divided  into  sixteen  small 
squares.  (See  Fig.  1).  Open  paper.  Each  square  measures  one 
inch. 


TIG.  1. 


Flu.  -l. 


Cut  the  squares  apart,  and  study  the  length  and  width.     Draw 
the  same  square  from  dictation. 


90 


DIMENSIONS. 


Fold  another  paper,  as  described  in  Fiji.  1,  and  then,  fold 
the  front  edge  to  meet  the  back  edge,  and  the  left  edge,  to  meet  the 
right  edge.  (See  Fig.  2). 

From  this  folding,  an  almost  endless  variety  of  foldings  may 
be  formed. 

When  dictating  for  drawing,  sometimes  give  a  portion  of  the 
figure,  covering  only  one-fourth  of  the  surface,  and  direct  the  chil- 
dren to  complete  the  figure,  by  drawing  the  other  parts.  Symmetry 
will  thus  be  taught,  and  also  one  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 
design,  viz.  :  the  repetition  of  a  unit. 


FIG.  3. 


FIG.  4. 


Having  folded  paper  as  described  in  Fig.  2.  Cut  from  the 
centre  of  the  right  side,  to  the  centre  of  the  square  —  also  cut 
from  the  centre  of  the  square,  to  the  centre  of  the  upper  side,  as 
indicated  by  the  heavy  lines  in  Fig.  3,  and  the  result  will  be  as 
developed  in  Fig.  4. 

Dictate  this  figure  —  first,  by  giving  directions  for  each  comer. 

Afterward,  give  directions  for  one  corner,  and  let  the  children 
complete  the  figure. 


DIMENSIONS. 
This  Fig.  5,  when  developed,  gives  Fig.  6. 


91 


FIG.  5. 


Another  dictation  —  Fig.  7,  developes  into  Fig.  8. 


FIG.  7. 


FIG.  8. 


92  DIMENSIONS. 

Another  example  (Fig.  9)  results  in  Fig.  10. 


FIG.  9. 
Again,  Fig.  11  develops  into  Fig.  12. 


FIG.  Ki. 


FIG.  ll. 


FIG.  12. 


Many  interesting  figures  may  also  be  made  by    dividing   tri- 
angles and  circles  in  like  manner. 


THE  ELLIPSOID. 


93 


FIG.  1. 

THE  ELLIPSOID. 

Compare  the  sphere  with  the  ellipsoid. 

The  ellipsoid  has  a  curved  surj ace ,  but  is  longer  one  way  than  the 
other.  Both  ends  are  alike.  Model  a  day  ellipsoid,  by  first  mak- 
ing a  sphere,  then  gradually  elongate  it,  keeping  the  ends  equal,  and 
the  entire  surface  curved.  (Fig.  1). 

Clay  forms  of  objects  based  upon  the  ellipsoid,  as  for  example, 
melon,  lemon,  potato,  banana  and  cucumber,  should  also  be  mod- 
eled. (Figs.  2,  3). 


FIG.  2. 


FIG.  3. 


Next  cut  the  clay  ellipsoid  in  halves.      (Fig.  4) 


THE  ELLIPSOID. 


FIG.  4. 


Objects   based  upon  the  half  ellipsoid  should   be  modeled   as 
vegetable-dish,  turtle,  and  pods  of  peas  half  open.    (Figs.  5  and  6). 


FIG.  5. 


TABLETS. —  Let   the   children    find  tablets  that  represent  the 
views  of  the  ellipsoid.      (Figs.   7,  8,  9). 


FIG.  7. 


FIG.  8. 


Have  each  child  hold  the  ellipsoid  in  a  ^orizontal  position,  from 
left  to  right. 

Also  in  a  vertical  position. 

The  views  are  represented  by  the  ellipse. 

Give  name  —  the  ellipse. 


THE  ELLIPSOID. 


Then  direct  the  class  to  look  at  the  ends  of  the  ellipsoid. 
These  views  are  represented  by  the  circle. 

Tablets  may  be  arranged  to  represent  groups  of  elliptical  solids, 
as  plums  and  barberries. 


FIG.  10. 


FIG.  11. 


Let  the  children  cut  a  plane  from  the  centre  of  the  clay  ellip- 
soid, showing  the  ellipse. 

Let  them  paste  paper  ellipses  in  simple  designs.  (Figs.  10  and 
11). 


THE   ELLIPSOID. 


FIG.  13. 


r~z>  *  -  - 

'"3>'"  ~' /~ ^  NN 
f  ^-' \     x/ 


Flu.  14. 


FIG.  15. 


THE  ELLIPSOID. 


9-7 


FIG.  16. 


FIG.  17. 


FIG,  18. 


PIG.  19 


96  THE  ELLIPSOID. 

Let  the  children  trace  the  outline  of  objects  upon  clay,  as  leaves, 
lemon,  or  plum  and  branch.  (Figs.  12  and  13). 

These  figures  may  also  be  sewed  on  cards.     (Figs.  14  and  15). 

They  are  now  ready  to  cut  the  ellipse  from  paper  (See  page  84, 
Fig.  V). 

Follow  the  four  steps  as  given  in  directions  (See  page  75). 


The  drawing  of  the  ellipse  should  now  be  practiced.  In  draw- 
ing a  verticle  ellipse,  hold  the  pencil  as  in  drawing  a  circle. 

In  drawing  a  horizontal  ellipse,  hold  the  pencil  with  the  point 
upward. 

Objects  of  elliptical  form  should  now  be  drawn  by  the  children, 
as  the  lemon,  potato,  leaf,  cup  :  a  cylinder,  tipped  so  that  the  upper 
end  appears  to  be  elliptical,  and  other  similar  objects.  (Figs.  16, 
17,  18). 

Leaves  and  flowers  of  elliptical  forms,  should  be  studied  and 
drawn.  Also  simple  conventionalized  forms. 

Plaques  of  clay  should  be  made,  and  ellipses  drawn  upon 
them. 

A  border  drawn  accurately,  and  cut  out  of  colored  paper,  is  a 
pleasing  application  of  these  forms. 


THE  OBLATE  SPHEROID. 


THE   OBLATE   SPHEROID. 

i 

The  study  of  the  oblate  spheroid  should  follow  the  ellipsoid  — 
as  many  objects  which  are  familiar  to  the  children,  are  based  upon 
it. 

Let  the  children  make  a  day  sphere  —  and  press  it  lightly 
between  the  hands,  to  increase  the  horizontal  circumference,  and 
diminish  the  vertical  circumference,  while  carefully  preserving  the 
curved  surface. 

Objects  based  upon  this  solid  —  are  the  turnip,  tomato,  door- 
knob, balls  of  twine  and  certain  dishes,  as  above. 


100 


THE  OVOID. 


THE  OVOID. 

Ask  the  children  to  compare  the  ovoid  with  the  ellipsoid.  They 
will  notice  that  one  end  is  smaller  than  the  other. 

Direct  the  class  to  mould  a  day  sphere  and  to  roll  it  between 
the  palms  of  their  hands  until  the  sphere  has  been  gradually 
lengthened,  and  one  portion  of  it  has  become  somewhat  pointed. 
Then  shape  and  smooth  the  clay,  till  a  perfect  ovoid  is  formed. 
Objects  based  upon  the  ovoid  are  pears,  acorns,  strawberries,  a 
duck,  clover  blossom,  or  the  body  of  the  stork. 


THE  OVOID. 


101 


Children  should  now  make  clay  plaques  and  upon  them  build 
up  bas-relief  designs. 

Let  them  begin  this  line  of  work  by  moulding  three  acorns, 


102 


THE  OVOID. 


place    them  in    a    graceful    cluster   upon  the  plaque  and  complete 
the  design  by  adding  the  stem  and  leaves. 


Make  another  clay  plaque,  and  draw  the  outline  of  the  acorns 
on  its  surface,  and  gradually  build  up  with  little  pieces  of  clay, 
within  the  outline,  until  the  acorn  is  formed.  Complete  the  design. 


On  another  plaque,  build  up  the  body  of  the  stork,  in  the  same 
manner. 


THE  OVOID. 


103 


Sprays  of  flowers,  and  leaves,  also,  are  suitable  subjects  for 
bas-reliefs. 


The  four  oval  petals  of  the  syringa  can  be  easily  moulded  by 
the  children. 

From  the  half-ovoid,  we  obtain  the  model  for  a  s  poon,  a  mouse 
or  a  boat. 


The  plane  cut  from  the  ovoid  is  an  oval. 


Tablets  representing  views  of  the  ovoid  are  the  oval  and  circle. 


104 


THE  OVOID. 


Following  the  clay  work,  tablet  designs  based  on  the  ovals  may 
be  made. 


These  designs  may  also  be  sewed  on  cards.     Next,  have  the 
children  fold,  and  cut,  a  paper  oval.      (See  pages  83  —  85). 

Drawing  from  objects  that  are  oval  in  form,  may  now  follow. 


THE   OVOID. 


105 


An  egg,  a  pear,  a  duck,  and  the  tablet  designs  previously  used  are 
suitable  subjects. 


Groups  of  objects  may  be  drawn  —  for  example,  a  lemon  and  a 
pear,  or  a  pear,  apple  and  plum. 


106 


THE  OVOID. 


Many  vase  forms  contain  the  oval,  but  before  attempting  to 
draw  them,  the  children  should  be  taught  the  necessity  of  finishing 
both  sides  of  the  object  alike — that  the  value  of  the  axis  of  sym- 
metry may  be  recognized. 


The  oval  may  be  introduced  into  designs  for  covering  a  surface, 
and  also  in  borders. 


THE  CONE. 


107 


THE  CONE 

Let  the  children  name  the  solid  having  a  base  similar  to  the 
cone  —  the  cylinder.  Ask  them  to  roll  the  two  solids  (cone  and 
cylinder)  on  their  desks,  that  they  may  observe  the  difference  of 
action. 

Give  the  tenns  —  base  and  vertex. 

Let  the  children  mould  a  clay  cone  —  by  making  first  a  sphere 
—  then  roll  it  slightly,  as  for  a  cylinder,  but  gradually  tapering 
it  at  one  end.  Have  the  children  roll  the  type  solid  on  their  desks, 
and  that  action  will  show  them  how  to  roll  the  clay.  Objects  based 
upon  the  cone  should  also  be  moulded  in  clay,  as  a  top,  a  pine- 


108 


THE  CONE. 


apple, —  tapering  roots  such  as  a  parsnip  or  carrot — and    certain 
kinds  of  shells. 


The  children  may  also  make  a  paper  cone.     Divide  a  square  into 
thirds,   by   foldings.       In   the    middle    square    of  the    lower   row, 


cut  a  circ'e  having  the  same  diameter  as  the  square,  and  leave  the 


THE  CONE. 


109 


circle  attached  to  the  middle  square.  Fold  back  the  paper  in  a  line 
from  the  middle  of  the  right  side  of  the  large  square,  to  the 
middle  of  the  upper  side  of  the  large  square.  Also  fold  back 
from  the  middle  of  the  left  side,  to  the  middle  of  the  upper  side. 
Cut  the  paper  in  a  curved  line  from  the  middle  of  the  right  side  of 


the  square, —  and  also  from  the  left  side  of  the  square,  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  circle.  Then  cut  off  the  upper  left  and  right  corners 
that  were  folded  back.  (See  Fig.)  Join  the  edges  by  sewing  — 
first  the  slanting  edges  —  then  bend  up  the  circle,  and  join  to  the 
hollow  cone. 

TABLETS. —  In  finding  the  tablet  resembling  the  cone,  the  chil- 


110  THE  CONE. 

dren  will  discover  a  new  triangle.     Let  them  describe  it  and  give 
the  name  —  isosceles  triangle. 


Direct  the  children  to  mould  a  clay  cone,  and  then  cut  it  verti- 
cally. Let  them  describe  the  plane  faces.  They  will  recognize  the 
semi-circle. 


The  triangular  face  may  be  cut  from  an  oblong,  whose  width 
equals  the  diameter  of  the  base  of  the  cone,  and  whose  length  equals 
the  height  of  the  cone.  Fold  the  oblong  vertically,  left  edge  to 
meet  the  right  edge,  and  cut  a  slanting  line  from  the  lower  right  cor- 
ner to  the  upper  left  corner. 


THE  CONE. 


Ill 


Let  the  children  study  the  views  of  a  cone  and  draw  them. 

The  plane  face,  or  bottom  view,  is  a  circle. 

The  top  view  is  a  circle  with  a  point  in  the  centre  for  a  vertex. 


In  the  front  view,  be  sure  the  vertex  of  the  triangle  is  over  the 
centre  of  the  base. 


THE   TRUNCATED   CONE. 

Let  the  children  mould  a  clay  cone,  and  cut  through  it  parallel 
to  the  base.  Teach  the  name  —  truncated  cone.  A  flower  pot, 
tumbler  or  basket  may  be  moulded  from  this  cone. 


112 


THE  TRUNCATED  CONE. 


Let  the  children  draw  the  top  view  of  the  truncated  cone,  pro- 


ducing the  concentric  circles  — 


THE  SQUARE  PYRAMID. 


113 


THE   SQUARE  PYRAMID. 

« 

The  cone  and  the  square  pyramid  should  be  compared  by  the 
children.  Let  each  child  handle  the  type-solids,  and  they  will  dis- 
cover that  both  solids  have  a  base  and  a  vertex,  and  that  a  portion 
of  the  surface  of  the  cone  is  curved,  and  the  surface  of  the  square 
pyramid  is  all  plane.  Also,  that  the  base  of  the  cone  is  a  circle,  and 
that  of  the  square  pyramid  is  a  square.  The  sides  of  the  square 
pyramid  are  isosceles  triangles. 

Direct  the  children  to  mould  a  square  pyramid  from  a  clay  cone 


114 


THE   SQUARE  PYRAMID. 


in  this  manner :  Tap  the  curved  surface  of  the  cone,  until  four 
equal  triangular  faces  are  made,  and  the  base  becomes  a  square. 
Be  careful  to  finish  the  faces  with  sharp  edges. 

On  one  side  of  a  clay  pyramid,  let  the  children  mark  lines  and 
figures  to  imitate  a  thermometer  —  on  another  insert  pegs,  imitating 


The  children  should  next  make  'A.  paper  pyramid. 

Divide  a  square  into  thirds  by  folding.  Then,  using  the  sides 
of  the  centre  square  for  bases,  cut  triangles,  as  in  Fig.  1,  page 
115. 


THE   SQUARE   PYRAMID. 


115 


FIG.  1. 


Fold  the  paper  so  that  all  the  triangles  can  be  cut  at  once. 


The  faces  of  the  pyramid  should  next  be  studied.     Find  tablets 
like  the  base  and  front  faces  of  the  pyramid. 


Describe  the  square  and  isosceles  triangle. 


116 


THE   SQUARE  PYRAMID. 


Direct  the  children  to  place  the  tablets  to  represent  the  pyramid 
and  borders. 


In- 


Let  the  children  make  a  skeleton  pyramid  of  sticks  and  peas, 
square    base.       Then  insert    a  stick  in  each  corner 


making  a 


THE  SQUARE  PYRAMID. 


117 


in  an  upright  position  and  join  the  four  uprights  with  a  pea,  at  the 
vertex. 


Let  the  children  bisect,  vertically,  a  clay  pyramid,  and  study  its 
faces  (triangles  and  oblong.) 


VIEWS  OF  THE  PYRAMID.  —  Let  the  children  draw  the  bottom 
view  of  the  pyramid  (a  square),  and  then  draw  the  front  and 
side  views  (isosceles  triangles.) 

Then  direct  them  to  hold  the  pyramid,  with  its  vertex  directly 
in  front  of  the  eye,  and  draw  the  top  view.  (See  Fig.,  next  page). 


118 


THE  SQUARE  PYRAMID. 


In  this  drawing,  care  must  be  taken  to  represent  the  vertex  by 
a.  point  —  and  also  to  represent  the  edges  of  the  faces. 


The  children  may  now  truncate  a  clay  pyramid,  as  they  did  the 
cone,  and  also  model  objects  based  upon  it. 


Draw  the  top  view.    (See  Fig.  1,  page  119). 

Designs  may  be  made  with  tablets  and  drawn.    (Figs.  2,  3,  4.) 


THE   SQUARE   PYRAMID. 


Ill) 


FIG.  1. 


FIG.  4. 


120 


EQUILATERAL  TRIANGULAR  PYRAMID. 


EQUILATERAL  TRIANGULAR  PYRAMID. 

Give  to  the  children  for  comparison  —  the  square  pyramid  and 
the  equilateral  triangular  pyramid.  They  will  find  that  the  triangles 
in  the  one,  are  isosceles  triangles,  and  equilateral  triangles  in  the 
other  —  that  one  has  a  square  base,  the  other  has  a  triangular  base, 
that  the  faces  on  the  triangular  pyramid  are  all  alike. 

Direct  the  class  to  model  a  clay  equilateral  triangular  pyramid. 

They  can  readily  do  so  from  a  sphere. 

First,  shape  one  portion  of  the  sphere  into  an  equilateral  tri- 
angular face,  and  use  it  as  the  base  of  the  pyramid.  Then,  shape 
another  triangular  face  with  its  vertex  over  the  centre  of  the  base 
of  the  pyramid.  The  other  two  faces  can  be  formed  by  shaping  and 
pressing  with  the  fingers,  more  easily  than  by  tapping  the  clay  on 
the  slate  as  was  .done  in  moulding  other  models. 


EQUILATERAL  TRIANGULAR  PYRAMID. 


121 


A  paper  pyramid  may  be  made  in  this  manner.  Cut  an  equilat- 
eral triangle.  (See  page  30.) 

Then  fold  each  corner,  to  meet  the  centre  of  the  opposite  side ; 
this  gives  a  central  triangle,  which  forms  a  base. 


Fold  the  three  sides  of  the  large  triangle,  that  the  corners  may 
meet  in  a  point  and  join  the  edges. 


Let  the  children  find  tablets  like  the  faces,  and  arrange  in  de- 
signs and  draw  them. 


122 


SUGGESTIONS. 


SUGGESTIONS. 

When  possible  to  do  so,  use  clay  modeling  to  illustrate  each 
subject  of  study. 

In  the  study  of  birds  and  animals  the  distinguishing  character- 
istics of  form  may  thus  be  taught  in  a  very  interesting  manner. 
The  roots,  leaves,  and  blossoms  of  plants  may  be  modeled  on  plaques. 

Language  lessons  may  be  illustrated  by  the  children  in  free- 
hand sketches,  after  this  method  : — The  teacher  may  tell  the  class  a 
story,  and  while  she  talks  the  children  should  draw,  in  outline, 
various  objects  mentioned  by  her.  These  objects  should  be  the 
same  as  those  previously  modeled  or  drawn. 


^ 

<n  &      \    6rp 

/ 

V  J    d$j& 

STORY. 

"Two  little  girls,  Mary  and  Alice,  are  playmates  and  go  to  the 
same*  school. 

One  day  Mary's  uncle  gave  her  a  round,  covered  basket 
with  a  handle.  Wishing  to  show  her  present  to  Alice,  she  filled  the 
basket  with  apples  and  carried  it  to  her  little  friend's  house.  After 
the  children  had  talked  about  the  kind  uncle's  gift,  they  began 


SUGGESTIONS. 


123 


to  play.  They  brought  a  little  table  and  placed  two  chairs 
beside  it.  Each  little  girl  had  an  apple,  and  a  mug  for  milk. 
In  the  centre  of  the  table  was  placed  a  tin  quart  measure  full  of 
milk.  When  the  children  were  tired  of  this,  they  ran  out  into  the 
garden  to  play  with  a  new  red  balloon  that  had  been  given  to  Alice. 
While  Alice  was  running,  the  wind  blew  the  balloon  out  of  her 
hand,  but  the  string  caught  in  the  clothes  line  and  held  it  fast. 


The  children  could  not  reach  the  clothes-line,  even  on  tip-toe, 
nor  when  Alice  brought  a  big  square  box  to  stand  upon.  But  she 
called  her  brother  John,  who  came  with  a  ladder  and  soon  the  run- 
away balloon  was  safe  in  her  hands  again. 

Alice  will  be  more  careful  next  time." 


124 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  IN   CARD-BOARD. 


FIG.  i. 


FIG.  2. 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  IN   CARD-BOARD. 

Objects  that  can  be  firmly  constructed  by  means  of  laps  or 
margins,  should  now  be  made. 

They  should  be  based  upon  the  Type-Solids,  and  may  be  con- 
structed of  liyht-wdght  card-board.  After  the  plan  of  the  object 
has  been  drawn,  the  outline  should  be  cut  out  with  the  scissors, 
and  wherethe  card-board  is  to  be  be>i(,  cut  through  half  its  thickness 
with  a  sharp  knife,  similar  in  shape  to  a  shoe-knife.  The  card-board 
.should  be  placed  upon  a  smooth  board,  and  while  the  left  hand  firmly 
holds  the  iron  ruler  to  the  line  to  be  cut,  draw  the  knife  lightly  down- 
ward to  avoid  cutting  through  the  cardboard. 

Use  the  Made  in  cutting,  rather  than  the  point  of  the  knife. 

These  objects  may  be  made  of  heavy  Manilla  paper,  without  the 
use  of  the  knife,  if  preferred. 

The  following  suggestions  will  illustrate  this  work. 


THE   CUBE. 


125 


FIG.  3. 


THE  CUBE. 

There  are  several  ways  of  drawing  the  margins  of  a  cube,  as 
may  be  seen  by  the  above  illustrations.  Fig.  1.  is  the  simplest. 
For  a  two-inch  cube,  a  paper  ten  inches  square  is  required.  With  a 
ruler  find  the  centre  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  paper,  and  place  a  point 
there.  Place  a  point  one-half  inch  below  point  1.  With  the 
last  point  as  a  centre,  draw  a  horizontal  line  two  inches  long. 
From  left  end  of  horizontal  line,  draw  downward  a  vertical  line 
eight  inches  long.  From  right  end  of  horizontal  line  draw  downward 
a  vertical  line  eight  inches  long.  Connect  the  lower  ends  of  the  vert  i- 
cal  lines.  Beginning  at  the  upper  ends  of  the  vertical  lines,  plaee 
points  two  inches  apart  and  connect  these  points  by  horizontal  lines. 
Extend  the  central  horizontal  line  and  the  one  above  it,  two  inches 


126 


THE  CUBE. 


at  left  and  right  of  vertical  lines.     Connect  the  left  ends  with  the 
vertical  line,  and  also  the  right  ends. 

Place  a  margin  one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide  around  the  upper, 
left  and  lower  sides  of  the  left,  square.  Also  around  the  upper,  riyht 
and  lower  Hides  of  the  right  square,  and  on  the  lower  side  of  the 
lower  square.  Cut  off  the  corners  of  each  margin,  as  in  Fig.  1. 
To  complete  the  figure,  cut  first  through  the  outline  ;  then  cut 
partially  through  the  lines  bordered  by  the  margins,  and  fold  into 
the  form  of  the  cube,  placing  the  margins  inside  and  paste  the  edges 
neatly  together.  Other  designs  are  given  in  Figs.  2  and  3. 


A  CUBICAL  Box.  Draw  the  cube  again,  and  place  margins 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  width,  on  the  upper  and  lower  edges  of  the 
left  and  right  squares,  and  a  half-inch  margin  upon  the  left,  lower 
and  right  edges  of  the  lower  square. 


FIG  4. 


Cut  the  corners,  as  in  Fiir.  4,  and  form  a  box  with  cover. 


THE   CUBE. 


127 


\ 


A  CUBICAL  SAFE. — On  the  left  edfje  of  the  paper  place  a  point, 
two  and  one-quarter  inches  from  the  upper  edge,  and  number  it  1. 
From  this  point,  extend  a  horizontal  line,  eight  and  one-quarter 
inches  toward  the  right.  Place  another  point  at  the  left  edge  of 
paper,  two  inches  below  point  No.  1,  and  from  it  draw  another  hori- 
zontal line,  also  eight  and  one-quarter  inches  long.  On  these  lines, 
beginning  at  the  left,  place  points  two  inches  apart,  and  number 
them  2.,  3,  4,  5.  Connect  these  points  by  vertical  lines,  and  mark 
the  squares  thus  formed  A.  B.  C.  D. 

Adjoining  the  upper  side  of  Square  B  draw  another  two  inch 
square,  and  mark  it  E.  Place  a  quarter-inch  margin  on  the  left  and 
right  sides  of  square  E.  One-half  inch  below  the  second  horizontal 
line,  draw  a  third  horizontal  line,  and  extend  the  vertical  lines  from 
points  2,  3,  4  and  5  to  meet  it.  On  the  third  horizontal,  place  points 
at  the  right  and  left  of  the  verticles,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  distant 
from  each  vertical.  One  the  horizontal  line  above,  (the  second) 
place  points  at  the  right  and  left  of  each  vertical,  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  distant.  Connect  these  points  on  the  second  and  third  horizon- 


128  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STICK-LAYIXG. 

tal  lines,  by  oblique  lines.  At  the  right  of  the  vertical  line  5,  allow 
a  quarter-inch  margin.  Draw  the  door  in  square  D. 

Cut  out  the  figure  and  fold  the  margins  inside,  and  paste  neatly. 

To  add  a  bo 'torn  to  the  safe,  add  square  F,  as  in  the  cut,  and 
paste  the  margins. 


SUGGESTIONS   FOR   STICK-LAYING. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STICK-LAYING. 


129 


\ 


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SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STICK-LAYING. 


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